THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE. PART 5.

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE PART V.

CHAPTER V.

A BLACK-HOLE.

The idea that there exists in nature "dark stars" with such a strong gravitational force that not even light can escape from them has been around for a long time. John Michell (1724-1793) presented such an idea in 1783 to the Royal Society and Pierre Simon Laplace (1749-1827)independently published the same ideas in 1796. The idea was almost forgotten in the 19Th century but became popular after Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity. Black Holes are thought to be formed as a result of the explosions of massive stars in supernova. Calculations have shown that compact supernova remnant with more mass than three times the mass of the sun would collapse into a black hole. It is thought today that there exists a "super massive black hole" at the heart of every galaxy.

There is not much known about the black hole but it is speculated that the escape velocity is equal to that of the speed of light. This would mean that mass and energy of the universe can fall in or be absorbed by a black hole, but nothing, no mass, no energy, not even light, can escape from it. The boundary of a black hole is known as the "event horizon" beyond which nothing can be observed from the outside. It was Karl Scharzschild (1873-1916) who discovered the solution of Einstein’s general relativity equation that described a black hole and worked out the formula of its critical radius. This is known as the Schwarzschild radius:

R = ( 2 G M ) / c^2

where (R) is the radius of a black hole, (G) is the gravitational constant, (M) is its mass and (c) is the velocity of light.

Theoretically, a black hole can be characterised by its mass, angular momentum and by its electrical charge. Apart from these three properties theorists are not certain but they speculate that there exists various kinds of black holes. There are the uncharged, non-rotating black hole described by the Schwarzschild solution; a charged, non-rotating black hole described by the Reissner-Nordstrom solution; an uncharged but rotating black hole described by the Ker solution; and a rotating, charged black hole described by the Ker-Newman solution.

Cosmologists trying to follow the general relativity theory, speculate that the ultimate fate of matter inside the event horizon, is its consumption in a singularity. This is a point where its density is infinite, its space is one-dimensional and where the laws of physics as far as we know, break down. The singularity is a point of infinite density that is speculated to be the end of matter according to the mathematical equation of Einstein’s general relativity theory. It is also speculated that the mirror image of such a singularity is the uniform expansion of the universe as described by the big bang theory. This implies that it was a singularity from which the universe was born.

There have been attempts to discover a mathematical solution that would unite gravity and quantum theory. One of these attempts was made by Roger Penrose (1931-- ) who proved that any mass falling into a non-rotating black hole was crushed into a singularity. However, the big problem of the singularity is that it does not account for the quantum theory but only is a solution to a question that arises from gravity and the general relativity theory.

What is here proposed is to examine the black hole from both the relativity theory and the quantum theory as it is explained above. If one takes a black hole consisting only of quanta particles it must have virtual mass according to the formula:

m^0 = (f h) / c^2

where (m^0) is the quantity of virtual mass, (f) is the frequency of the quanta particles, (h) is the Planck constant, and (c) is the velocity of light. Since the black hole consists of G E virtual mass it must also have energy which is of two kinds; kinetic and gravitational energies. The formula for its kinetic energy is:

K E = ( m^0 c^2 ) / 2

and its formula for its gravitational energy is:

G E = ( G ( m^0 )^2) / R

where (G) is the gravitational constant and (R) is the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole. From the energy formula is possible to work out the radius of the black hole:

E = K E + G E

m^0 c^2 = (( m^0 c^2 ) / 2 ) + ( G ( m^0 )^2) / R

(( m^0 c^2 ) / 2 ) = ( G ( m^0 )^2 ) / R

R = ( 2 G m^0 ) / c^2

However, since the virtual mass is:

M^0 = ( f h ) / c^2

the radius of the event horizon of a black hole is:

R = ( 2 G f h ) / c^4

In such a black hole consisting only of pure or radiant energy its time dimension is zero because all the quanta particles move at the velocity of light. In other words, it exists in the fifth dimension or frame reference. There are no other dimension within it because it contains no massive objects that move with a speed lesser than the speed of light. The black hole also has a temperature and density depending on the amount of quanta energy which will decrease as its energy or virtual mass increases. The decrease of temperature and density is due to the increase of the energy or virtual mass because density is measured by the mass divided by its volume which depends on its radius:

D = M / V

The volume of a sphere increases by the cube root of its increase of the radius:

V = ( 4 pi R ^3 ) / 3

The radius of a black hole increases directly by the increase of its mass:

R = ( 2 G M ) / c^2

and thus the volume of the sphere of a black hole increases by the cube of its increase of its mass, and its density decreases by the square of its mass. The fact that the density of a black hole decreases much faster than its increase of its mass or energy is an important phenomenon that will be shown later when discussing quantum fluctuation and the formation of mass particles.

Since a black hole consisting of pure energy, exists in the fifth dimension or frame reference, the Newtonian laws of movement apply because all the quanta particles move at the same velocity relative to one another and the time dimension does not apply because they all move at the speed of light.

Another very important phenomenon of a black hole consisting of pure energy is that there is no place for a singularity. This is so because all the quanta particles or virtual mass have momentum, kinetic and gravitational energies that can not be destroyed, but are conserved due to the law of conservation of energy.

The quanta particles within a pure energy black hole are not drawn to its centre because here there exists an equilibrium of its gravitational and kinetic force. As it was shown earlier in this work, quanta particles have two equal and opposite forces, kinetic and gravitational. It could be argued that the gravitational force within a black hole is most active at its boundary within its event horizon because it prevents the quanta particles from escaping.

This is not a strange phenomenon because even in our ordinary experience of a massive object, its centre of gravity may lie within or without the object. It is at the centre of gravity that all the forces of gravity of the object full equally in all direction so that there is an equilibrium at its centre and the object is at rest or has equilibrium. In a black hole the greatest pull of gravity is not at its centre but at its boundary while at its centre there is an equilibrium. The quanta particles cannot be collected at its centre because they cannot loose any energy and momentum which are conserved. There exists an equilibrium within a pure black hole because the gravitational forces are equally opposed by the kinetic forces. Both these forces are potential and conserved in the kinetic and gravitational energies of the quanta particles.

If a singularity cannot exist at the centre of a pure energy black hole, than no singularity can exist in the universe. This is so because matter reduced to its most basic form is pure energy and this is according to Einstein’s relativity theory which holds that mass can be reduced to pure energy and energy can be transformed into mass.

A singularity is not possible because it does not account for the momentum of quanta particles which does exists according to Einstein’s photo electron effect. Both the gravity and momentum of quanta particles cannot be lost because quanta particles cannot loose any energy; they are the most basic quantity of energy according to Planck’s theory. The theory of the singularity only deals with gravity and does not account for the momentum of quanta particles.

While a black hole cannot loose any energy, it can, however, gain energy from the outside. Let us presume that a pure energy black hole only gains pure energy. As it gains energy, it will gain virtual mass and consequently its radius will increase and its density will decrease. However, it will retain its equilibrium at its centre while the strength of its gravitational force and thus its pressure and temperature remains the same at its event horizon, preventing any escape of quanta particles.

It could be speculated that in nature there exists no greater force of gravity, pressure and temperature than at the event horizon of a black hole because nothing can move faster than the speed of light or quanta particles. If this speculation is correct that the greatest region of density and temperature is at the event horizon of a black hole, it could also be speculated that it is the optimum place for the occurrence of quantum fluctuation as Stephen Hawking has proposed.

Quantum fluctuation is due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle operating in nature where matter and anti-matter is formed. Stephen Hawking speculated that quantum fluctuation forming matter and anti-matter occurs just outside the event horizon of a black hole. He further speculated that this pair of matter and anti- matter could exist for a very brief moment of time before dissolving again. But in this brief moment of time it could happen that one part of the paired particle matter fell into the black hole, the other part gained energy from the black hole and could thus escape into the universe. By this means, he said, a black hole could loose energy and could possibly even explode forming a white hole. It was even speculated that this could have been the big bang or the creation of the universe.

Quantum fluctuation could be interpreted as the mechanism by which the universe transforms quanta particles or virtual mass into massive objects like sub-atomic particles. This process would not violate any principles. The pair of matter and anti-matter would not just pop out of nothing but are formed from the quanta particles which posses virtual mass and both gravitation and momentum.

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE. PART 10.

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE PART X.

CHAPTER X.

CONTINUOUS COSMIC EVOLUTION.

The universe as it has been viewed in this work was mainly according to its physical principles, laws and old and new cosmological theories. A strong emphasis has been made of the existence of a universal gravitational-kinetic force that includes the lambda principle, virtual or zero rest mass of its quanta particles, its fifth dimension, and its black hole cosmological structure. The B.H.U. (black hole universe) theory is proposed which holds that the universe is a vast black hole including all energies and matter.

Besides proposing this new B.H.U. theory, this work so far has talked on three universal constants found in the universe and tried to show how closely they are related. In fact these constants unites Newtonian universal law of gravity, Einstein’s law of relativity and the quantum nature of the universe. It tried to give a new interpretation of the TOE theory. A number of cosmological consequences of the B.H.U. theory would indicate that the universe might not be expanding after all and that its beginning was not from a singularity, big bang and inflation. In fact it could rather be, that the universe is stable and is govern by fundamental principles that cause continuous formation of sub atomic particles from energy by means of quantum fluctuation.

This B.H.U. theory also seems to indicate that the universe has a entropy greater than zero but less than one. This would mean that in the universe there exists both order and disorder, chaos and zero rest mass and rest mass particles. The universe has a back ground radiation; a gravitational red shift of the light coming from distant stars which is due to its universal gravitation. It has a conserved quantity of gravitational and kinetic energies and forces.

Two important questions still to be examined in this work are: the historical development of the universe, and is it possible that there exists a principle of continuous evolution according to which the universe can continue to develop for ever? These are important questions that can give some true insight to the beginning, nature, structure, and future of the universe. It will give an overall view of the historically perspective of the universe.

When talking about the beginning of the universe it is important to know what is meant in the context of this work. The idea of creation is not involved here because the term creation is part of the transcendent aspect of the cosmos. The transcendent aspects deals with the question about God who exists in eternity and whose act of creation is eternal. When talking about the beginning of the universe from a physical aspect, it means from that moment when rest mass particles were formed that moved less than the speed of light. This point is regarded as the beginning of time because according to Einstein’s theory of relativity physical time can only exists when there exists particles which moved with a speed that is less than the speed of light.

However, according to the physical principle, energy can not be created or destroyed so that energy the basic element from which rest mass particles are formed, did exist in the universe before the beginning of time. The form of energy before the beginning of time was in the form of pure chaos, but chaos that was governed by fundamental principles that directed the formation of matter.

To ask the question where did the energy come from and when was it created is outside the realm of physical science. This would be a metaphysical and transcendent question that can not be answered by physical science. Physical science accepts that energy existed at the beginning of physical time. The philosopher and the theologian can talk about the beginning of time and the universe but they would have their own principles laws that would govern their field of sciences.

The philosopher’s idea of time would talk about the past, the present and the future. Anything that happened before the present is the past and anything that will happen beyond the present is the future. Thus the philosopher could talk about the time before the beginning of physical time and could speculate about the origin of the energy but he has to follow the law of logic. So too, the theologian can talk about the beginning of the universe from a transcendent point of view but it too has to be in keeping with faith and revelation. A harmonious view of all three perspectives would render a cosmological insight on the beginning of the universe.

From a purely physical aspect, all energy existed at the beginning of the universe in the fifth dimension in a state of pure chaos. However, what scientists have discovered is that even pure chaos is governed by physical laws. Thus, this pure energy which consisted of zero rest mass particles, or quanta particles or electro -magnetic radiation, is governed by cosmological principles.

The three basic laws or principles which existed at the very beginning of time were: the Newtonian laws of gravity and inertia or momentum, Einstein’s laws of relativity and the laws of quantum mechanics. These three basic laws had three basic constants, namely, the universal constant of gravitation, the speed of light in a vacuum, and the Planck constant.

The Newtonian laws of motion explains the universal gravitational and kinetic forces operating in the universe viewed in its fifth dimension. Einstein’s laws of relativity demands the constancy of the speed of light in a vacuum and established the relativity laws and a space time continuum as its fourth dimension. The laws of quantum explains the particle and wave nature of the quanta particles and it gives meaning to Heisenberg uncertainty principle and quantum fluctuation which occurs throughout the universe. With a finite quantity of energy in the universe, these constants describe a universe that has a structure of a black hole with a stable radius.

It is assumed that the basic laws and constants of the universe existed and operated from the very beginning of the universe. It is difficult and even impossible to answer the question why this should be so. Just as it is impossible to answer why the mathematical laws are correct or even why anything exists at all. These are self evident ontological questions that do not have an scientific answer. Similar questions are: How do we know that we exist? We know because we know; it is self evident and we do not need to proof it. I know that I exist because otherwise if I do not exist, I would not know. These are ontologies, self evident truths that need to be accepted if to be logical. These are ontological and not scientific questions and they lay outside the field of the physical aspect of the cosmos.

At the beginning of physical time there existed pure chaos consisting of quanta particles or electromagnetic radiations that formed an independent system of energy. The structure of the universe was a black hole. The electromagnetic radiation moved at random within the black hole making up the total energy of the universe consisting of two equal but opposing forms of kinetic and gravitational energies, forces and inertia or momentum. Since all energies where contained within the universe the radius of its event horizon was static and this prevented the universe either from expanding or from contracting into a singularity.

In this black hole universe consisting of pure radiant the strongest force of gravity is found at its event horizon, since it is so strong that it prevents any radiant energy to escape. If this is true, than the greatest concentration of radiant energy is at the event horizon forming a rim that consists of a super hot belt of electromagnetic radiation. Nothing, no energy can escape beyond the black hole but its interior is marked by a universal force of gravity and a very even background radiation that makes up its universal temperature.

The black hole universe was in the form of the fifth dimension, consisting of electromagnetic radiations that had various universal constants, including the universal gravitational constant, the speed of light in a vacuum and the Planck constant. At the beginning all the energies existed in a state of pure chaos. But it was governed by universal physical principles like the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and the many other universal physical laws discovered over the centuries.

One very important consequence that flowed from the uncertainty principle was quantum fluctuation. It is the mechanism in the universe that is able to transform radiant energy into sub atomic particles. Quantum fluctuation operated from the very beginning of physical time. This is so because physical time itself only began when radiant energy was transformed into sub atomic particles that moved with a speed that was less than the speed of light. As the sub atomic particles where formed, it also at the same time, formed the space time continuum of the fourth dimension which is governed by the relativity laws of Einstein.

While quantum fluctuation can occur anywhere in the universe, it is more prominent in a more hotter region of the universe where there is a greater concentration of energy. This would naturally be at the event horizon of the universe in the belt of radiant energy so strong that it even prevents light from escaping. In the formation of sub atomic particles from energy, scientists have discovered that it is always as a pair of both positive and negative form. It forms both positive and negative matter. If this positive and negative matter should recombined it would annihilate itself again in the form of radiant energy.

If this law of formation of matter from radiant energy into pairs of positive and negative matter, was always true from the very beginning than the positive and negative matter must also have been separated. The universe that can be observed by the astronomers is positive or it consists of positive matter. In fact no negative matter, stars or galaxies have ever been observed. The question could be asked: if our observable universe consists of positive matter, where is the negative matter?

This important question could possibly be answered by the following speculation. At the time of the formation of positive and negative matter, they are separated into two different regions. Since the formation mainly occurs in the radiant belt at the event horizon of the universe, the positive matter formed escapes into the interior of the universe and the negative matter remains on or at the radiant belt. Thus, the radiant belt of the universe could consist of negative matter whereas the positive matter escapes into the interior of the universe forming the positive matter observed by the astronomers.

In the interior of the radiant belt is a region of constant formation of positive and negative matter and its annihilation. The annihilation process of positive and negative matter can occur immediately after their formation but some particles would exist a few moments long enough to escape this region of annihilation. Only those positive and negative particles that have successfully extradited themselves into there respective regions, remain. The remaining matter can undergo further formation into atoms and molecules which are the basic matter in the formation of galaxies, stars and other astronomical bodies.

If this speculation or theory is correct, it is possible to say that while the interior of the universe is positive, the exterior of the universe is negative. The universe observed from the outside would appear to be negative but the interior as we can observe it, is positive which means it consists mainly of positive matter. The divide between the positive and negative matter is the radiant belt or the event horizon that surrounds the whole universe and it is a permanent structure. In no way can the positive matter of the interior universe be annihilated by negative matter because the divide of the radiant belt is impossible to be breached. Between the two regions of positive and negative matter lies a belt of very high temperature that would annihilate any positive or negative matter in it.

In some respect the whole universe is reflected in every subatomic particle in miniature. According to the theory here presented, every rest mass sub atomic particle that would include all subatomic particles, is like a miniature black hole. This is the theory presented earlier in this work when talking about the TOE theory of the universe. Every subatomic particle would consist of an inner tiny black hole with an event horizon and its radius. If the interior of the black hole of the subatomic particle would have a positive charge like an electron, its outer charge would be the negative and vice verse.

The formation of subatomic particles and atoms are very well explain by both the big bang theory and the steady state theories. After the formation of the basic elements of electrons, protons, neutrons and all the other subatomic particles, came the formation of hydrogen, helium and deuterium atoms. Fred Hoyle and independently, Yaakoy Zel’dovich (1914-87) explained the manufactures of most of the other elements inside stars by means of nucleosynthesis. After the formation of gas clouds came the formation proto galaxies, galaxies, stars, planets and all the other heavenly bodies so far discovered by the astronomers.

What is becoming obvious from the observation of the astronomers, is that there is a continuous formations of galaxies and stars throughout the universe. Simultaneously, however, there is also a continuous destruction of stars and galaxies in the universe especially by means of nuclear burning in stars. The formation of each galaxy and star is unique and there are unique differences so that there sees to be a continuous evolution happening in the universe. The universe seems to be always renewing itself; it is certainly not dieing out.

As new subatomic particles and atoms are formed, electromagnetic energy is restrained in these elements and this tends to lower the temperature of the universe. On the other hand, as energy is released by means of nuclear burning or by means of annihilation of elements, the temperature of the universe is slowly increased. As the temperature is decreased the universe looses its degree of entropy and as energy is released it gains in entropy. Eventually, there comes a balance that maintains a steady degree of entropy in the universe. This can be observed and measured in the universal back ground radiation.

What can be observed when reflecting on the structure and development of the universe is that there exists a continuous evolutionary process in the universe. This continuous evolution slowly changes the structure of the universe. It will never remain the same but it is continuously being altered. The structure of the universe today is different from what it was at its beginning and in a few millennia it will be different again.

This continuous evolutionary process observed in the universe is an echo of the continuous formation of subatomic particles by means of quanta fluctuations. The mechanism of quantum fluctuation is due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle discovered to be inherit in the quanta particles. It is one of the most important inherent principle in nature that enables the evolutionary process to be continuous. This evolutionary process is also reflected in the emergence of organic life in the universe. Its evolutionary process continued until the emergence of intelligent life.

While organic and intelligent life has emerged on planet earth, there is no reason to suggest that it has only occurred here. It could possibly be that organic and intelligent life has emerged somewhere else in the universe but until now it has not been discovered. The importance of the emergence of organic and intelligent life in the universe is not whether it has emerged somewhere else but that it has emerged. The very fact that it has emerged means that it has a very important position in the universal evolutionary process. It may mean that the continuous evolutionary process is depending on the emergence of organic and intelligent life in the universe.

One thing is sure, that unless intelligent life had emergence in the universe, there would have been no conscious creature who could appreciate and master the elements and principles of the universe. Since intelligent life has emerged in the universe it has an evolutionary obligation to continue its evolutionary process. This could be interpreted to mean that intelligent life has an obligation to humanise not only its own planet, but also the other bodies in its solar system and even go beyond depending on its technological, political, economical and social development.

The importance of the human species in the cosmos does not depend on the physical size of the human person or on the size and position of planet earth, or the solar system or the Milky Way Galaxy. In comparison to other heavenly bodies the human person, species, planet earth, solar system and galaxy appear very ordinary. They seem to look even minuscule and can certainly not boast of any special position in the cosmos.

However, planet earth can boast that is the only known planet in the universe that is capable of supporting organic life necessary for the existing of intelligent life. Human life can boast that it is the only known intelligent species in the universe. It might not be the only intelligent species in the universe but we have not discover any other, nor do we even have a sign of any other existing in the universe.

What gives the human species and each individual person such importance in its cosmic relationship is its intelligence, its ability to formulate ideas, to think, to remember, to be creative, to be able to love. It is only an intelligent person who can come to know and appreciate the beauty of the universe; come to some understanding of its origin and destiny. It is only an intelligent being who can consciously participate and promote the cosmic evolutionary process.

What would be the purpose and meaning of the cosmic reality if it were not for intelligent being to come to appreciate it and contribute to its evolution? The human species and to some extend every person, has the privilege to be part of the cosmic reality and also a corresponding obligation to participate in its development. It is possible to say that the universe through its cosmic evolutionary process, has obtained consciousness in the human intelligent species.

The evolutionary push of the universe has not reached its end but it is seems to be encouraging the human species not only to humanise its own planet earth, and go further to become extra terrestrial. It seems to be pushing humankind to venture forth from our beautiful planet, to master and to humanise other planets, moons and may be even other solar systems. There seems to be no physical reason why this cosmic evolutionary process should come to an end. It is true that our planet earth and our solar system will become uninhabitable for the human species in the distant future. However, when this will eventuate, the human species would have become truly extra terrestrial.

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE PART 9

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE PART IX.

CHAPTER IX.

COSMOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES.

The five most important universal or fundamental constants of the universe are: the gravitational constant, the speed of light in a vacuum, the Planck constant, the frequency and the radius of the event horizon of the universe. They constitute a fundamental formula for the universe:

R = (2 G f h ) / c^4

The three constants, the gravitational constant, the speed of light in a vacuum and the Planck constant, are generally accepted to be universal constants by the scientific community. It is also a general accepted physical principle that energy cannot be created or destroyed. If these are truly universal principles than the frequency of the universe must also be a universal constant because according to Einstein, energy is equal to the frequency times the Planck constant, that is:

E = f h

If the energy of the whole universe is constant, than its frequency must also be constant. If, however, all the universe is a vast black-hole according to the above universal formula, than its radius must also be constant and the universe must be static.

Unfortunately, the majority of modern scientists do not hold that the universe is static but rather believe that it is expanding. This, they say, is so because of Einstein’s general relativity theory. Another reason is the red shift discovered in the light coming from distance galaxies, which they say, is due to the Doppler effect. An important proof they hold is the back ground radiation discovered throughout the universe, which is said to be the remnant evidence of the big bang. If is true that the universe is actually expanding today, then either the universe is not a black hole or the five fundamental constants, as mentioned above, are not constant.

The modern theory of the universe, the big bang universe theory is based on Einstein’s general theory of relativity. For historical reasons Einstein’s general theory of relativity did not at first, take into account the quantum theory but rather just incorporated the force of gravity in the universe and did not account for the inertial force. Einstein seems to have intuitively sensed the necessity of an opposite force in the universe which he incorporated into his first universal equation and which is known as the cosmological constant.

When the astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) discovered that the redshift of light coming from distance galaxies is dependent on the distance of the galaxies, scientists interpreted it to be due to the Doppler effect and they accepted it as proof that the universe was expanding. If the universe was expanding than there was no need of Einstein’s cosmological constant and it was no longer considered in the general relativity formula of the universe. Even Einstein eventually accepted that the universe was expanding and regarded his cosmological constant as his greatest blunder of his life.

Although Einstein could be regarded as one of the founding father of the quantum theory, he never completely accepted it and did not incorporated it into his general theory of the universe. He could not fully accept the theory especially when Werner Heisenberg (1901-76) discovered the uncertainty principle. This principle stated that in nature the position and momentum of a particle can not be know with an unlimited accuracy at the same time. This brought an element of chance or uncertainty as a fundamental condition of nature in the universe which Einstein found difficult to accept. This lack of accepting this fundamental condition of the universe into the general theory of relativity, was at first a hindrance to the development of a universal theory of the universe. But later on, scientists did incorporate the quantum theory into Einstein’s general relativity theory which developed into the modern big bang theory .

Einstein unsuccessfully searched for nearly thirty years to get a complete formula for the universe that would account for all four fundamental forces in nature. He was attracted by the idea of a fifth dimension but he did not view it in the context of the whole universe. He viewed it rather according to the big bang theory as a universe curled up within itself with a radius of a Planck length at its very beginning. Einstein was greatly influenced by the tremendous development and discoveries of modern astronomy and cosmology which occurred at the beginning of this twenties century. In so doing he restricted to some extend, his own independent creative thought. When he accepted the idea of the expansion of the universe theory, he had to discarded the idea of the cosmological constant. However, Einstein’s brilliant ideas of the laws of special and general relativity and his insight of the quantum theory, they contain the basic elements of a true understanding of the physical universe.

According to the black hole universe theory (B.H.U.), the universe is static and cannot expand or contract. However, most modern cosmologists and astronomers have accepted the big bang theory of the universe which holds that the universe is in fact expanding. The reason for this favoured view of the scientists is based on their firmly held cosmological theories and astronomical observations. Theoretically or rather mathematically, Einstein’s general relativity formula of the universe without the cosmological constant, gives the formula for the big bang theory. According to this theory the universe is able to expand or to contract.

The questions to ask is: is the formula a true reflection of the universe or is it such a beautiful mathematical formula which has captured the imagination of scientists but it does not fully express the true nature of the universe?

In ancient Greece, there existed a religious philosophical school called Pythagoreans named after the famous philosopher Pathagoras (about 580-500 BC). This group had such respect for mathematics that they developed a kind of mystical philosophy of numbers to understand the cosmos. However, their group eventually died out because numbers or mathematics alone cannot truly reflect reality. Numbers and mathematics is an abstraction and is quite distinct from physical reality. Thus any mathematical formula of the universe even how beautiful it might appear, cannot be taken as true unless it can be verified by physical proof and observations.

The idea of the big bang theory that all the energy of the universe was contained at the beginning of time, in a space time dimension of a Planck length which is only is hard to believe. Similarly, it is difficult to accept that all the energy of the universe exploded from nothing. This seem to violate the philosophical principle that nothing can come from nothing. It also violates the physical principle that energy cannot be created or destroyed. These ideas are beautiful mathematical theories but they are so difficult to understand that many young people are put off from seriously trying to understand physics and cosmology. Even the idea of a space time continuum or the idea that gravity bends space are difficult concepts to grasp. All these ideas flow from the big bang theory and seem to be more mathematical concepts distinct from physical reality.

The question of the expansion of the universe is very important to properly understand the reality of the physical universe. As it was mentioned before, it was the astronomer Edwin Powell Hubble (1889-1953) who discovered that the redshift of light coming from far away galaxies depends on their distances from the observer. The greater the distance the greater the redshift. From his discovery the big bang cosmologists worked out the Hubble constant which gives the rate at which the universe is suppose to be expanding. Hubble was uncertain to the reason of the fact that the redshift of galaxies was depending on the distance. Since, however, the big bang theory was so popular among scientists, he also accepted the idea that the universe must be expanding. The big bang cosmologists were delighted and claimed to have physical proof of the expansion of the universe.

Ever since the time of Hubble this is the preferred interpretation of the cause of the redshift which is presumed to be due to a Doppler effect. However, this view was not universal held by all scientists. There has been a hypothesis of the ‘tired light’ first suggested by the Swiss-American astronomer Fritz Zwicky (1898-1974). The concept put forward is that the light travelling through the universe loses energy creating a redshift in relation to the distance it has travelled, but which is not due to the expansion of the universe. However, a reason for this loss of energy of the travelling light was not proposed and consequently the hypothesis was dropped.

The tired light hypothesis of Fritz Zwicky, however, could possibly be correct according to the black hole universe (B.H.U.) theory. The B.H.U. theory could give a reason how the energy of the light travelling through the universe could be lost and so create a redshift. It was Albert Einstein again who suggested in his general theory of relativity, that light travelling against a gravitational force will exhibit a gravitational red shift. A rest mass object travelling against the force of gravity would loose speed but light cannot slow down because its speed is constant. Consequently, light travelling against a gravitational force would loose energy and exhibit a gravitational red shift.

According to the B.H.U. theory, the universe has a universal gravitational constant which acts throughout the universe. Light therefore, or electromagnetic radiation travelling in the universe, is travelling against this gravitational force and thus would lose energy exhibiting a gravitational red shift. If the gravitational force is constant then the loss of energy from the light travelling is constant. The further or the longer the light travels through the universe, the greater would be the loss of energy and consequently the greater would be its redshift. Thus the red shift exhibited by the light coming from distant galaxies, could be interpreted as being a gravitational redshift rather than a red shift due to the Doppler effect. In other words, the universe may not be expanding but rather it could be static as predicted by the B.H.U. (black hole universe) theory.

Another very important proof for the big bang theory according to the cosmologists is the fact of the universal microwave back ground radiation which was discovered. According to the big bang theory the initial state of the universe consisted of a very high temperature which decreased as the universe expanded. The residue of this early high radiation should still be observable in today’s universe. Thus, when a universal back ground radiation was discovered by two Bell Research technicians Arno Allan Penzias (1933- ) and Robert Wilson (1936-) in 1965, the scientists were delighted. Most cosmologists today assume that it is a definite proof for the big bang theory.

However, the B.H.U. (black hole universe) theory predicts that the universe must also have a universal back ground radiation due to the universal temperature of the universe. Every black hole has an internal temperature depending on its volume which is dependent on its radius which in turn is dependent on its quantity of mass or energy. Scientists speculate that only about one to ten percent of the mass in the universe is visible. This could mean that ninety nine to ninety percent of the mass of the universe is in the form of electromagnetic radiation or pure energy. It is this radiation that constitute the universal back ground radiation of the universe. Thus the universal back ground radiation found throughout the universe might not necessarily be a proof for the big bang theory but rather could turn out to be a proof for the B.H.U. theory.

The universal back ground radiation may even become the decisive factor in determining which of the two theories is correct. According to the big bang theory the universe is still expanding which means that the original temperature of the big bang must still be decreasing. This decrease in the temperature should be detectable in the universal back ground radiation. If it is still decreasing than it could possibly be an indication that the big bang theory is correct.

However, if it back ground radiation remains stable, it could be proof for the B.H.U. theory because according to its theory the universe cannot loose any energy. Energy could be changed into rest mass particles like the sub atomic particles by means of quantum fluctuation. This would cool the universe because rest mass particles are like bottle up energy balls but energy is released again by the thermo -nuclear reaction that occur in the interior of stars. These two processes would eventually balanced each other and the temperature of the universe should remain stable. This stable temperature should be generally throughout, apart from some slight local differences due to variation of quantities of rest mass objects and radiation found in galaxies.

COBE was a satellite launched by NASA in 1989 to discover ripples in the cosmic background radiation. The satellite confirmed the universal background radiation of 2.7 Kelvin coming from all parts of the universe but it also discovered tiny variations in the temperature coming from different parts of the sky. The differences were no bigger than one part in a hundred thousand and the big bang cosmologists took it as proof to confirm the inflationary theory of the Big Bang model of the universe. It seem to confirm that the early structure of the universe were just right to explain the formation of all the clusters of galaxies observed in the universe today.

The findings of the satellite COBE could also be explained by the B.H.U. theory. The average temperature of the background radiation is the average temperature of the black hole universe. However, the slight differences or ripples in the back ground radiation indicate the different concentration of matter and energies in the universe. The universe consists of clusters and even super clusters of galaxies where as other parts are less dense or less concentrated with matter and energies. The variations of the concentration of matter and energies are observed in the ripples indicated by the COBE findings.

The big bang cosmologists apply the Doppler effect to explain the redshift of the light coming from the distant galaxies and take it as proof that the universe is expanding. The Doppler effect is a proven scientific principle and it seem to operate throughout the universe. There is a Doppler redshift of the light coming from a galaxy that is receding from an observer and there is a Doppler blue shift of the light coming from a galaxy which is moving towards the observer. The light coming from distant galaxies show a redshift and this is the reason why cosmologist thing that the universe is expanding. But there are some galaxies in our local cluster like the Andromeda galaxies which exhibit a blue shift which indicates that it is moving towards our galaxy instead of drawing further apart. The big bang cosmologists explain this phenomena by stating that the expansion of the universe does not affect the local cosmological structures but only the super or large structures of the universe.

According to the B.H.U. theory, the universe is not expanding and the redshift of the light coming from distant galaxies is interpreted gravitationally rather than as a Doppler red shift. Furthermore, the B.H.U. theory holds that the universe as a whole is static and not in motion. If the universe as a whole is static but the earth is in motion in regards to the universe, than the scientists should be able to observe a Doppler redshift of light that would indicate the earth’s motion in regards to the universe as a whole. However, when it comes to measure the earth’s motion relative to the universe as a whole, it would be difficult to distinguish the Doppler redshift effect from the gravitational redshift.

A further difficulty would be to account for the relative movement of all the other structures of the universe in regards to which the earth would also have a relative motion. For instant, the earth moves within our own solar system which moves relatively to the Milky Way galaxy. Our Milky Way galaxy in turn moves relatively and is part of a local cluster of galaxies. This local cluster of galaxies moves and is part of a super cluster of galaxies and this in turn moves and is part of the whole universe. There is constant relative movements which affect the Doppler redshift of the light coming from these different structures of the universe. It is very difficult to distinguish each relative motion of the earth from each other.

If the B.H.U. theory is correct than it might be possible to work out the radius of its event horizon from its universal background radiation or temperature. Every black hole has an internal temperature which is directly related to its energy and radius. Since a black hole does not loose energy and since energy can be measured in electromagnetic radiations than it should be possible to work out its temperature relative to its radius.

Scientists would hold that only about one to ten percent of the mass of the universe can be observed. This would mean that only one to ten percent of the energy of the universe is in the form of matter that contains bottle up energy within itself. The rest of the energy or the ninety nine to ninety percent of the energy of the universe is still in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This free energy would make up the temperature of the universe or the 2.7 Kelvin of the background radiation observed every where in the universe. The percentage of energy in the form of matter in the universe must be taken into account when working out the radius of the universe from its temperature.

The B.H.U. theory answers a number of problems encountered by the big bang universe theory. The big bang universe theory finds it difficult to unite various mathematical mechanics like the Newtonian, Einstein relativity and the quantum. From the basic B.H.U. mathematical formula which is:

R = ( G f h ) / c^4

it is possible to observe the close interconnection between the various mechanics. Gravity is represented by the symbol (G); Einstein’s relativity is symbolised by (c), standing for the speed of light in a vacuum; and (h), the Planck constant includes the quantum theory. Furthermore, the formula includes all the energy and masses of the universe and it can reveal the frequency of the universe which has been a mystery up to now. The formula also calculates the radius of the universe and shows that the universe is static or stable; it can not go on expanding for ever or contract into a singularity.

The B.H.U. theory gives a reasonable explanation to some of the other cosmological difficulties known as the horizon, the flatness and lambda problems. The lambda problem arises by the fact that cosmologists have detected a counter force to gravity in the universe but it is so weak that it cannot be measured. The big bang universe theorists propose a period of very fast inflation of the universe just after its beginning of its expansion. However, this theory of the exponential inflation is an arbitrary assumption and it would violate Einstein’s law of relativity which holds that nothing can move faster than the speed of light.

In the B.H.U. theory the lambda problem does not arise because it is a fundamental part of the theory. The lambda force is part of the most fundamental force in nature, the gravitational kinetic force. The lambda force would be equal but opposite to the force of gravity in the universe. Both forces are necessary to make the universe stable and permanent.

The flatness problem arises in the big bang theory in determining whether the universe will be expanding for ever, or whether the expansion will slow down and stop, or if the universe will begin to contract again. If there is not enough matter in the universe to stop its expansion the universe will continue to expand for ever. If the gravitational matter is enough than the expansion should slow down, stop and the universe will begin to contract again. The problem with the flatness is that the scientists cannot determine which is correct: is the universe’s expansion slowing down; is there enough matter in the universe for the expansion to stop and to begin to contract again or not?

From present astronomical observation the energy density of the universe seems to remain at a critical divide rendering the universe a flat, Euclidean space. This flatness problem does not arise in the B.H.U. theory because according to its view the universe is not contracting nor expanding; but it is static and stable. It has a limited extend which is measured by the radius of its event horizon.

The so called horizon problem, arises from the fact that the universe is so similar throughout; having the same properties of energy density and back ground temperature and the laws of relativity seem to be operating instantaneously. According to Einstein’s relativity laws nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. How is it possible than, that the universe can be so isotropic throughout seeing that the universe is so vast and it would take billions of light years for light to transverse it? The big bang universe theory is trying to answer this question with its inflationary theory. Before the inflation, the universe was still very small in size, so that its energy density and temperature could be evenly distributed. Then, by means of the inflation, this evenness was spread throughout the present day universe and that is way it looks so uniform today.

This problem of the horizon or the fact that the universe is so isotropic throughout in spite of its vastness, is answered quite differently by the B.H.U. theory. When viewing the universe from the fourth or the space time continuum dimension, the quanta particles or the photons travel at the speed of light. This would mean that according to the Einstein’s relativity laws, its time of travel anywhere within the universe is zero. This would mean that the photon travel in a no time zone and their effects seem to appear simultaneously.

This isotropic nature of the universe would indicate that the universe forms one whole body where every element is interconnected and affected by each other particle and part of the universe. The B.H.U. theory gives meaning to this by holding that the whole universe forms a fifth dimensional structure, an unique independent system of energy which can neither loose or gain energy from the outside. Looking at this unique system from the fourth, spacetime continuum dimension, events on the quanta level seems to be simultaneous. However, when the movements of the quanta particles are examined in the fifth dimension than the time factor is normal.

One of the cosmological consequences of the B.H.U. theory is its unique interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics which is one of the fundamental laws of science. The second law of thermodynamics was first enunciated in 1850 by Rudolf Clausius (1822-88) and in essence it states that heat cannot flow by itself from a system of lower temperature to a system of higher temperature. Clausius also introduced the idea of entropy which is a measure of disorder or chaos in a close system of energy. Thus, in any close system of energy in which the second law of thermodynamics operates, its entropy should always increase. This would mean that in the universe which is a close system of energy, its entropy is continuously increasing and the universe is destined to expire of ’a heat death’ as was predicted by Clausius.

When examining the universe from the fourth or spacetime continuum dimension, this second law of thermodynamics seems to be true especially because of the continuous thermonuclear burning of matter in stars. Furthermore, according to the big bang theory the universe is still expanding and there is no mechanism in its theory where by pure electromagnetic energy can be reconstituted into matter. The formation of matter according to its theory, occurred only at its very beginning. This would mean that the universe is destined for total entropy where only chaos has mastery.

The B.H.U. theory would hold that in its fourth or spacetime continuum dimension, the universe does seem to be heading for a heat death or total entropy or chaos. However, the theory also views the universe in a fifth dimension which does have a permanent mechanism of converting pure energy into matter or sub atomic particles. The mechanism is quantum fluctuation and is a permanent feature of the universe. In its fifth dimension the universe can continuously remodel itself.

While chaos or entropy is part or even the greater part of the universe, it cannot have complete mastery. There seems to be a fine balance between chaos and quantum fluctuation. The astronomers can only detect one to ten per cent of the mass of the universe. The rest of the mass of the universe seems to remain in the form of electromagnetic radiation and this maintains its heat observed by its universal back ground radiation.

The mechanism that transforms the electromagnetic radiation when it is in the form of chaos or nonlinear structure, into sub-atomic particles or linear structure is quantum fluctuation. This is possible because of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle that was found to be operating throughout the universe. This principle was discovered by Werner Heisenberg (1901-76) and states simply that it is impossible to accurately predict the position and momentum of a particle at the same time.

This principle can be explained by Einstein’ relativity theory. Since photons or electromagnetic radiations consist of quanta particles which cannot loose kinetic and gravitational energies, they move continuously at the speed of light. Thus they have no dimension of length and they operate in a time frame where its time is zero when viewed from the fourth or space time continuum dimension. The length and thus their position cannot be measured nor their mass and momentum since they only have zero rest mass. They exist in the fifth dimension where they acquire their own time, particle structure and momentum.

The fifth dimension is the realm of the quantum fluctuation and when viewed from the fourth or space time continuum dimension it looks very strange or even weird. This strangeness has been called quantum weirdness and it seems to indicate ‘that nature is in some sense nonlocal’. When scientists refer to nature to be ‘local’ they mean that mechanical interactions of particles or systems of particles are conditioned by the laws of relativity and cannot occur faster than the speed of light. This would mean that there could not be a simultaneous interaction between particles that are far apart.

Such recognition of nonlocal interactions was repugnant to Einstein and that was why he was reluctant to accept the quantum theory. But it is the quantum theory viewed in the fifth dimension that explains the weirdness or nonlocal interactions observed in nature. It is the quantum theory that gives meaning to quantum fluctuation which is the mechanism that is operating in the universe. It is by means of quantum fluctuation that pure electromagnetic radiation or quanta energy is transformed from the state of chaos to rest mass matter or sub atomic particles which are the building particles of matter in the universe.

The hotter the environment, the greater the chance for quantum fluctuation to occur. According to Stephen Hawking this occurs near the event horizon of a black hole where its heat density seems to be the greatest. However, due to the principle of Heisenberg uncertainty, quantum fluctuation could also happen in cooler environment but the chances are much smaller.

This idea that matter is formed continuously throughout the universe was first proposed by the steady state hypothesis which was an alternate theory of the universe to the big bang theory. The steady state hypothesis was first proposed in 1940 by Herman Bondi (1919- ), Tommy Gold (1920- ), and Fred Hoyle (1915- ). Its main idea was that matter was formed through out the universe in the form of new hydrogen atoms. The steady state theory also accepted the idea of the expansion of the universe. It could not, however, account for the redshift observed in the light coming from distant galaxies and could not explain the evolution that marks the history of the universe.

The continuous creation of the steady state theory proposed that matter was continuously formed to compensate for the expansion of the universe and thus it kept the universe "isotropic". The theory did not, however, explain what caused this continuous formation of matter and what was its mechanism. The B.H.U. theory does not hold for the expansion of the universe, but it does give the cause of its formation. The rest mass matter is formed by the mechanism of quantum fluctuation where by pure energy or electromagnetic radiation is formed into rest mass sub-atomic particles.

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE. PART 8.

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE, PART VIII.

CHAPTER VIII.

UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS.

Scientists have discovered a number of universal constants that are invariable and seem to operate throughout the universe. The three most basic universal constants which are well known are: Universal gravitation, the speed of light in a vacuum and the Planck constant. All three universal constants are interconnected and are fundamental to the laws that govern the universe.

The question one could asks is: Why are these universal constants invariable and how are they essential interconnected with each other? Is it possible that these constants can change over time in the universe? For instant: some scientists seem to say that the gravitational constant seem to change in time as the universe is expanding or with distance. However, this is only a theory and not a fact. As far as scientists can tell from observations all these laws are constant and operate throughout the universe.

The universal gravitational constant was discovered by
Isaac Newton who worked out the law of gravitation which is a force that acts between masses that are separated by a distant.
The formula of the force of gravity is:

F = (m1 m2 G) / d^2

where the term (G) is the gravitational constant and its value is:

6.67259 10^-11 N m^2kg^-2

Newton lived centuries before Albert Einstein discovered the laws of relativity's. Newton’s law of motions which initiated Newtonian mechanics, differ from the laws of relativity which are the basis for relativistic mechanics. Newton regarded time to be constant but Einstein discovered that time is relative depending on the speed of the object moving in relation to the observer. The faster the object is moving, the slower is its time factor and if it was moving as fast as the speed of light, its time factor would be zero. This meant that at slow speeds Newton’s mechanics can still be applied but if the speed of the objects were nearing the speed of light, Newton’s laws were not accurate and have to be replaced with Einstein’s laws of relativity.

Einstein regarded all objects in the universe as moving relative to each other with a speed or velocity less than the speed of light. This meant that the laws of relativity have strictly to be applied throughout the universe to all objects which have rest mass and which could only move slower than the speed of light. This is true if one looks at all the objects in the universe from the fourth or space-time dimension. However, one could look at the universe in its fifth dimension, the universe as a whole, where basic energy or electromagnetic radiation which consists of zero rest mass or virtual mass, move at a constant speed of light. From this particular point of view relativity time is zero and the universe as a whole forms its own independent energy system with its own state of reference where Newtonian mechanics can be applied.
To view the universe as a whole in its fifth dimension is important in order to understand the different universal constants and the interconnections that exists between them. If the universe as a whole is a non moving black-hole containing all energies and matter it would have its own frame of reference. In this particular case the Newtonian laws can be apply to those zero rest mass objects that move at the speed of light which are not bound by relative time. This would not violate the laws of special relativity but can be regarded as a special case. In this particular case then, the laws of Newtonian mechanics can be applied not only to the force of gravity, but also to the inertial force, gravitational and inertial energies and zero rest mass particles like the quanta particles and photons.

Another universal constant discovered is the speed of light which is:

c = 2.99792458 10^8 m s^-1

It took scientists a long time to work out the nature and speed of light. The finiteness of light was established in 1876 by Ole Roemer(1644-1710) who gave the first measurement. It was Isaac Newton who proposed a corpuscular theory of light which became popular among scientists. However, Thomas Young (1772- 1829) rediscovered the interference pattern of light and proposed a wave theory. Accepting this theory James Clerk Maxwell (1831- 79) showed that light forms part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The Michelson-Moreley experiment proved that light could travel in a non-detectable medium. Albert Einstein showed in 1905 that light consisted of a stream of discrete photons of electro- magnetic energy. The wave corpuscular nature of light was finally settled by the quantum theory and wave mechanics.

In order to work out the laws of special Relativity, Albert Einstein presumed that the speed of light in a vacuum was constant and it was time that was relative depending on the speed of the object. A vacuum exists where there are no mass objects that is, there are no objects which have rest masses. When light passes through a medium like water where there does exists rest mass objects, the speed of light is affected which can be observed and measured. However, a vacuum can exist where there is only electromagnetic radiation or pure energy which have only zero rest masses or virtual masses. Such a vacuum would be in the fifth dimension and the speed of light would be constant.

In order to show that the speed of light in the fifth dimension of the universe is constant, it is important to talk about the Planck constant. It is a fundamental constant which is denoted by the letter (h) and it relates the energy of a light photon to its frequency.

E = f h
This means that the energy of a quantum particle has a frequency and a quantity of energy; it shows both the particle nature of light to its wave nature. Its measurement is:

h = 6.6260755 10^-34 Joule seconds.

It was Max Ernest Planck (1858-1947) who first proposed in 1900 that electromagnetic radiation was emitted and absorbed only in definite units of energy which he called quanta. It was Albert Einstein who then suggested that electromagnetic radiation which included light, are actually individual particles known as photons. A photon is thus a particle with zero rest mass or a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. It consists of a unit of energy which is measured by the Planck constant times the frequency of the radiation in hertz. Thus:

photon = h f

The smallest quantity of energy is a quantum particle with a frequency of one. However, it is a fundamental law of modern mechanics that energy cannot be created or destroyed. This means that as energy is constant or conserved, the energy of a quantum particle with a frequency of one is constant or conserved. If a quantum particle of energy is constant than the energy of a photon particle which consists of a definite number of quanta particles depending on its frequency, must also be constant unless it increases or decreases its frequency.

These are three universal or fundamental constants discovered in the universe, mainly, the gravitational constant, the speed of light in a vacuum and the Planck constant. There are a number of other fundamental constants like the charge on an electron, the electric constant and the magnetic constant whose strength does not change and is thought to be the same throughout the universe. Here, however, we will only look at the first three constants to see how they are related in the context of the universe.

According to Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity, all matter can be changed into energy and energy can be changed into matter. Following Einstein’s theory of relativity and applying it to the universe as a whole, the total gravitational energy is equivalent to its inertial energy. This would mean that the total energy of the universe consists of the sum of its total gravitational and inertial energies. Thus:
M c^2 = ((M c^2) / 2) + ((G M^2) / R)

From this formula we can get the formula:

R = 2 G M / c^2

where (R) stands for the radius of the event horizon of the universe. However, energy can also be measured by frequency and the Planck constant:

E = f h

This enables us to convert the mass function of the universe into a frequency and Planck constant function.

M = f h / c^2

Applying this function to the formula of the radius of the event horizon of the universe the formula would become:

R = ( 2G f h ) / c^4

This is a very important formula because it not only gives the radius of the event horizon of the universe, but it also shows the connection of the three fundamental constants of the universe. If the gravitational constant, the speed of light in a vacuum, and the Planck constant are truly constants and universal than they form one universal constant for the whole universe. This would mean that the radius of the event horizon of the universe is directly dependent on the frequency of the universe. Since the frequency of the universe is dependent on the quantity of energy in the universe and since the quantity itself is constant, this would mean that the radius of the universe is constant or static. It cannot expand or contract.

Another very important formula which can be extracted from the radius formula, is the frequency of the universe as a whole. If the astronomers could measure the radius or extend of the universe than the frequency of the universe could also be found because it is directly dependent on the radius. The formula for the frequency of the universe would be:

f = (R c^4) / (2G h)

If the above theory of the close relationships of the various constants is correct, it reveals a beautiful harmony in the universe. It also would strongly indicate that the universe is static and cannot expand for ever or contract into a singularity because it cannot gain or loose energy which is its most basic element.

The question which still needs to be asked is "why are the universal constants at a value that they have and why are they so closely interrelated?" I feel that this question should not be asked in the field of physics since it is rather a rational or metaphysical question. We do not ask why in mathematics, is the sum of one plus one, two. (1+1=2) We accept it as a self evident statement. Similarly, we do not question the existence of something which exists. It is a self evident truth. I know that I exist, it is self evident.

Like ways, when examining the universal constants, it seems to be self evident that the fundamental constants are what they are because that is their nature. Similarly, the universal constants are so closely related and interconnected to each other because that is the nature of things. It is a self evident truth that has to be accepted. It has to be accepted that energy, quanta particles or electromagnetic radiation existed from the beginning of time otherwise the fundamental laws of physics break down eg. "Energy can not be created or destroyed." To ask the question why this is so or where does energy come from is outside the field of physics. The question however, could be asked in the fields of philosophy or theology.

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE PART 7.

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE PART VII.

CHAPTER VII.

A BLACK-HOLE UNIVERSE (B.H.U.)

After reviewing some of the basic physical principles and laws that govern the universe, it is good to see how they apply to the universe as a whole. As it was mentioned earlier, it was Aristotle that maintained the logical and philosophical principle that an effect needs a cause. This would mean in the physical realm that a movement of an object must have a cause or a force that initiated the movement. Isaac Newton, many centuries later, discovered the laws of motion and showed that an object remains at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted upon by an external force. This means that the state of motion of an object is permanent unless it is affected by an external force. However, a moving object has momentum and kinetic energy that can be translated into a force to give or to change the state of motion of another object. Newton also discovered the law of universal gravitation and maintained that all the objects of the universe are gravitationally attracted towards each other. According to Newtonian physics the universe has only three physical dimensions and time is constant and does not affect the other dimensions.

Albert Einstein, in the 20 century, discovered the special and general laws of relativity which maintains that time is not constant but depends on the motion of an object. The speed of an object will affect its length, its mass and its time. Thus, time is a fourth dimension of the universe. Einstein showed that no material object which has a rest mass, can travel faster than the speed of light because at this point its time dimension is zero, its length is zero and its mass would have to be infinite. According to Einstein’s physics all objects which have a non-zero rest mass in the universe are relatively related to each other depending on their motions.

Einstein also discovered the law of equivalence which maintains that the gravitational mass is equivalent to the inertial mass. He was able to relate mass to energy by his famous equation of:

E = m c^2

He maintained that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and that photons or quanta particles which are the constituents of light, have a photoelectric effect which means that they have both momentum and are affected by gravitation.

It was Max Planck who first proposed in 1900 that electro-magnetic radiation can only be emitted or absorbed by small quantities of energy called quanta. This led to the quantum theory which viewed matter basically as a wave-particle duality and linked it to an uncertainty principle discovered by Werner Karl Heisenberg. This principle, fundamental to the quantum theory, states that the mass and the velocity of an object are so linked that they can not both be precisely determent at the same time.

Einstein did not at first fully accepted the quantum theory with its uncertainty principle because he found it difficult to incorporate it into his grand theory of general relativity. He spend the last thirty years of his life searching for a grand universal theory that would incorporate both quantum and gravity. This is still a great problem of modern physics today.

Einstein was attracted by the notion of a fifth dimension put forward by Theodor Franz Kaluza in 1919. This was a unified field theory that combined Einstein’s theory of gravity with Maxwell electromagnetic theory. Kaluza suggested that the fifth dimension was different from the other dimensions because it was "curled up" like a circle. The Swedish mathematician Oskar Klein suggested that the circle was as small as a Planck length, which is about 10 ^-33 cm, too small for any one to observe. While this idea of the fifth dimension of the universe was very appealing no one could work out what this really meant.

The opposite idea may possibly be true that the fifth dimension is not a very small circle but rather comprising the universe as a whole. The whole universe consists of all the quanta particles or energy forming a super-symmetric fifth dimension. The quantity of quanta in the universe is not infinite but rather finite existing from the beginning of time. This would conform to the basic physical law that energy cannot be created or destroyed. This theory would also conform to the idea that the universe is not infinite in extend but rather limited to the space that encompasses all the energy and matter that exists.

From the time of Einstein, scientists have known many of the basic physical laws that are operating in the universe. However, until now they have not yet been able to completely synthesise all the elements. This is partially due to the fact that their ideas of the universe is somewhat restricted to the idea that the universe consists of a four dimensional structure. The four dimension being three spatial and one of time making it a space-time continuum.

Time, size and mass of an object with rest mass are relative quantities and they form a space that encompass the object. An object with a rest mass has a size which can be measured by length, depth and height or by its radius or volume. The distances between physical objects can be measured and this can be regarded as space or a volume that occupies a space. But take away the objects, then there is no space. Objects have space or there exists space between objects, but there is no space apart from the objects. Zero rest mass objects like quanta particles or electromagnetic radiations or pure energy which have the qualities of gravity and momentum, can also form a volume and space. Pure energy does also form space.

Time according to Einstein’s special theory of relativity, is related to the speed of an object which also affects its size and mass. Space does not so much depend on time, but rather on the existence of objects or energy. Space exists where objects and energy exists and the extend of space is depending on the extend of the existence of objects and energy. If energy has existed from the beginning of time, space has also existed from the beginning of time and the measurement of space is depending on the extend or volume of the existence of energy. If energy has existed from the beginning of time throughout the universe, the space or volume of the universe has also existed from the beginning of time. Space is not so much depending on time but to the extend of the existence of objects and energy.

Time in the fourth dimension of the universe depends on the speed of an object in relation of other objects. The faster an objects moves in relation to an observer, the slower is its time factor. If an object moves as fast as the speed of light, its time factor is zero. If space is depending on time, and the time factor is zero than there must be zero space between the moving object and the observer. This cannot be true and it means that space is independent of time.

According to Einstein, nothing can move as fast as the speed of light except light itself. This places light or quanta particles in a very special dimension in regards to the universe; it exists in its fifth dimension. Looking at light from the fourth dimension, its time factor is zero. This means that its movement must be simultaneously throughout the universe; its takes zero time for light to travel from one part of the universe to another. However, when looking at the speed of light from the fifth dimension of the universe, its time factor is regular and does not increase or decrease but can be measured as if it existed in its own inertial frame of reference. The universe in its fifth dimension forms its own frame of reference, where its time dimension is constant and cannot be altered. This is shown by the fact that the speed of light is one of the universal constant as Einstein had assumed when he discovered the laws of relativity.

Sir Isaac Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation and he held that all objects in the universe are interrelated. When Albert Einstein first proposed a theory of the universe according to the general laws of relativity, he speculated of the existence of another universal constant. This force is known as the cosmological constant that opposed the force of gravity in the universe and so makes the universe stable or static. Einstein discarded this proposition later when he thought that the universe was expanding. However, there are scientists today who would speculate of the existence of such a force that would affect the rate of expansion of the universe.

Einstein also discovered the principle of equivalence which holds that gravitational and inertial mass are equivalent. From this it could be argued that gravity and inertia are equivalent; also the force of gravity and the force of inertia, and that in the universe, the gravitational energy is equivalent to kinetic energy. This principle of equivalence may be applied to the universe in the fifth dimension which looks at the whole universe only in terms of gravitational and kinetic energies.

From this it can be speculated that the total quantity of energy of the universe is the sum of both the total amount of gravitational and kinetic energies.Thus:

M c^2 = ((M c^2) / 2) + ((G M^2) / R)

where (M) is the total mass of the universe including both zero rest mass particles and rest mass particles. (G) stands for the universal gravitational constant, (c) is the speed of light and (R) is the radius of the universe. If the gravitational energy of the universe is equivalent to the inertial energy than it can be speculated that the gravitational force of the universe is equivalent to the inertial force of the universe. There exists not only gravity but also an inertial force in the universe and these forces are equal and opposite. This universal inertial force of the universe could be thought of as Einstein’s cosmological constant that prevents the universe to collapse into a singularity.

It could be objected that pure energy or electromagnetic radiation or quanta particles have no mass and thus they exhibit no gravitation or momentum. However, Einstein had shown that electromagnetic radiation do have a photoelectric effect which means it has momentum and is influenced or affected by gravitation. If quanta particles have a zero rest mass, they do not have rest mass this means they can never come to rest. But they do have some kind of mass that could be called virtual mass. Einstein had presumed in his investigation of the laws of relativity that the speed of light is constant which means that the quanta particles move at a constant rate and thus could never be at rest. Thus quanta particles do not have rest mass, but since they do carry momentum and are affected by gravity they must have some kind of mass that is: virtual mass.

Scientists talk about virtual particles in the quanta theory. These virtual particles are virtual because they have virtual masses that carry energies both gravitational and inertial. When a rest mass particle gains energy it will increase both in its momentum and mass which shows that energy has both mass and inertia. Since the quanta particles has zero rest mass and have a quantity of energy of Planck constant, it shows that both the gravitational and inertial energies of the universe are conserved. Thus, the law of conservation of energy: energy can not be created nor destroyed. From the above energy equation of the universe it is quite easy to work out the equation of its radius:

R = ( 2 G M ) / c^2

This turns out to be a very important equation discovered by Karl Schwarzschild (1873-1916) and is know as the Schwarzschild radius or the event horizon of a black hole. The essential feature of a black hole is that its escape velocity is that of the speed of light. Since nothing can travel faster than the speed of light, nothing can escape from it, not even light.

If the universe is a vast black hole whose escape velocity is greater than that of the speed of light, this would confirm Newton theory that all masses and energies of the universe are interrelated. No masses or energy exists outside the universe.

The proposition that the universe is a vast black hole containing all energy and masses is possible and should be carefully investigated. In its most fundamental structure it would be a self contained frame of reference not of the fourth dimension but rather of the fifth dimension. This would mean that the basic constituent element of the universe consists of pure energy or electromagnetic radiation or quanta particles. Since this energy cannot be created or destroyed it must have existed from the beginning of time and will exist until the end of time.

Einstein’s law of equivalence seem to hold that pure radiant energy consists of two fundamental equal but opposite forces that is gravitational and kinetic. If this is true throughout the universe in its fifth dimension, than the universe can neither contract nor expand, it must be static. Radiant energy by its very nature has zero rest mass and thus is in continual motion, but it does exhibit an inertial and gravitation dimension as shown by the photoelectric effect. From this it can be assumed that energy has some kind of virtual mass and it can lead to an explanation of the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle.

Pure energy or quanta particles are part of the fifth dimension and thus it has virtual mass which cannot rest and has no dimension of length when viewed from the fourth dimension. Thus, its position and its momentum cannot be measured at the same time. Its position cannot be measured because its length is zero and its time can not be determent because it is also zero since its moves at the speed of light. However, it will display both a particle and wave dimension at the same time since it carries both gravitational and inertial energies.

This black hole model of the universe would preclude the necessity of a singularity, the expansion of the universe and the possibility of its contraction. If both the gravitational and inertial force of energy is universal and thus acts throughout the universe, the gravitational force would balance the inertial force. The gravitational and inertial forces of pure energy remain constant and cannot be diminished nor can they interchange because energy cannot be created nor destroyed. This would mean that the balance between the gravitational and inertial forces in the universe is constant. It is important to remember that this occurs in the fifth dimension of pure energy. This does not occur of course in the fourth dimension between objects which have rest masses where the normal laws of relativity operate.

In a black hole of the fifth dimension, consisting of pure energy the gravitational and inertial forces are equal and opposite and these forces cannot be interchanged. This means that the gravitational energy cannot be changed into inertial energy and vice versa because they are constant. However, the quanta particles are constantly moving at the speed of light and have no rest mass. These quanta particles in the fifth dimension cannot be collected at the centre of gravity like objects which do have rest mass in the fourth dimension. The kinetic and gravitational forces are active throughout the black hole and do not concentrate at its centre. The universe as a whole, forms an independent system of energy where the total energy remains constant.

Since these forces are constant, the quanta particles cannot increase in speed; however, they can be bent or gravitationally red-shifted under the influence of gravity. This means that the greatest gravitational red-shift or bending occurs where there exists the strongest force of gravity. In a black hole the strongest force of gravity is at its event horizon and not at its centre because at its event horizon its gravitational force is so strong that it prevents even light from escaping. At its centre there exists a gravitational balance or equilibrium and it is equal in all direction.

This fact is very significant. If the force of gravity is most effective at the event horizon in a black hole, than most of its energy must be concentrated at the event horizon and not at its centre. Every black hole has a temperature according to its quantity of energy which also determines its radius, its size and its density. The greater the quantity of energy or mass, the greater is its radius and the smaller its density and universal temperature. However, since its temperature depends on its density of energy, and if the density of energy is greatest at its event horizon, its temperature is also the greatest at the event horizon. It could possibly be assumed that the greatest temperature in the universe is at the event horizon and not at its centre.

The temperature of the event horizon could be likened to the temperature of the universe just after its beginning as is proposed by the theory of the big bang. As in the theory of the big bang, sub-atomic particle formation occurred just after its beginning, so too, it can be presumed that sub-atomic particle formation could occur at the event horizon of the black hole universe. The great difference between the two theories is that in the big band theory particle formation occurs only at its beginning. Whereas in the black hole universe theory the formation of sub-atomic particles can be continuous and can continue as long as the universe exists.

The black hole universe theory could possibly also give an explanation to the fact that the universe we observe, consists predominantly of positive rather than of negative matter. According to the theory of Stephen Hawking, sub-atomic particles are formed by quantum fluctuation at the event horizon and occur in positive-negative pairs. If this is true than it could happen that the negative and positive pair particles are so formed, are captured and separated at the event horizon of the black hole universe. The negative matter particle are predominantly captured and held near the exterior of the event horizon, whereas the positive matter particles escape within the interior of the black hole universe. This would make it a negative universe with a positive interior. While the positive matter would be scattered throughout the interior of the universe the negative matter is kept at its perimeter of the event horizon.

As the positive matter is scattered into the interior, it cools forming sub-atomic particles, the different forces or interactions, atoms and molecules. As these collect they form the proto-galaxies, galaxies, stars, solar systems, planets, moons and all the rest of the heavenly bodies. Just as the different sub-atomic particles of the positive matter are formed so are also the different forces in nature. The electromagnetic force exists when there are electron particles and nucleons, the weak nuclear force arises where there are neutron particles and the strong nuclear force exists where there are nuclei holding protons and neutrons together in the nuleus of atoms. These different sub-atomic particles, forces, atoms and molecules are all composed of the same basic energy or quanta particles that make up the universe.

The universe seen in its fifth dimension, consists of pure kinetic and gravitational energies in the form of quanta particles. However, when observing the universe in its fourth dimension, it seems to consists of both pure energy and matter. These matter particles exist only in the fourth dimension and they obey the laws of relativity. Different forms of energies interchange and matter itself can change into pure energy and pure energy can be formed into matter. There seems to be a continuos evolution; energy is continuously changed into matter by quantum fluctuation and matter is continuously formed back into pure energy by nuclear burning in stars.

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE. PART 6.

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE PART VI.

CHAPTER VI.

A THEORY OF EVERYTHING (TOE).

As mentioned earlier in this work, "GUTs" stands for grand unified theories which encompass different physical models trying to describe the behaviour of the four different fundamental forces or fundamental interactions between the particles. The endeavour is to be able to describe all these forces or interactions by one need mathematical formula. If such a theory exist it is sometimes called the "TOE" (theory of everything) and is regarded as the Holy Grail of modern science.

In the middle of the 19th century, James Clerk Maxwell (1831-79) discovered the mathematical equations which determined the behaviour of the electromagnetic force in nature. His equation contained the constant "c" which was equal to the velocity of light. He thus showed that light was a form of electromagnetic radiation that is propagating through space by a wave function. Maxwell had discovered and described two facets of the same fundamental interaction that is known as electro- magnetism linking electricity and magnetism.

In the middle of the 20th. century other theories that included quantum mechanics successfully described other fundamental interactions. For instants, quantum electrodynamics (QED) was able to correctly predict the behaviour of the interactions of charged particles like electrons and protons. In 1960 scientists discovered a mathematical theory which combined the QED theory with the weak interaction known as the electroweak theory. The next step was to fine a mathematical theory that would combine the electroweak theory with the strong nuclear interaction which holds the particles of a nucleus together. The strong nuclear interaction is thought to arise by the exchange of gluons between quark particles held within the protons. This theory is known as quantum chromodynamics (QCD).

The reason why scientists find it difficult to encompass the fundamental force of gravity into a grand unified theory is the extreme weakness of the force of gravity compared with the other three forces of nature. It is speculated that gravity is passed from one massive object to another by a hypothetical massless particle called graviton. Some scientists have proposed a mathematical theory known as the string or superstring theory which envisages one-dimensional point-like entities that operate in different dimensions and seem to possess the properties of gravitons.

Most scientists today view a possible solution to the TOE theory to be the discovery of a particle that is of such a high-energy scale in which all the other fundamental forces in nature are united. They speculate that the electromagnetic force mixes with the weak nuclear force at the electroweak scale which has an energy level of a 100 GeV (Giga-electrovolt) forming two electroweak forces. These two new forces unite with the strong nuclear force at the GUT scale with an energy level of 10^16 GeV. According to the string theory this force will merge with gravity into a single "superforce" at the string scale which has an energy level of 10^18 GeV. At this level all the fundamental forces of nature become as one. Some scientists envisage even a Planck scale with an energy level of 10^19 GeV which has a length of only 10^-35 (m). At this scale, gravity would become comparable in strength to the other forces.

Unfortunately, such high energy levels can not be reached experimentally at the moment. However, theories suggest that at the beginning of the big bang such high energy levels did exist. All the forces of nature were as one at the beginning of the big bang. Then the different forces separated or were filtered out at the different energy levels which were reached as the universe expanded and cooled. As the universe expanded and cooled its energy level was lowered.

This is the common held theory at the moment concerning the different fundamental forces of nature and the connection that exists between them. Just as matter and anti matter can be formed by means of quantum fluctuation, it seems that the different forces also were formed at the beginning of the universe when the temperature and pressure were at the different electrovolt energy scales. The question one could ask whether there could possibly be another explanation for the beginning, nature and connections that exists between the different fundamental forces in nature?

According to the theory proposed in this work, energy existed in the universe from the very beginning of time as well as the fundamental laws that governs the cosmos. Energy basically consists of quanta particles that have virtual mass, momentum and gravity. These quanta particles always move at the speed of light (c), and have a constant quantity of energy known as the Planck constant (h) which has a value of 6.626 10 ^-34 Joule seconds. Since these quanta particles have both virtual mass and momentum they consists of both gravitational and kinetic energies and act as a gravitational-kinetic force. Thus the weakest fundamental force in nature is not purely gravity but is one that is composed of two, gravity and an equal but opposed, kinetic force.

In the theory, here proposed, these quanta particles in the pure state, exist in a frame reference of the fifth dimension. In this state physical time is zero when viewed from the fourth dimension. In this state of quanta there is no acceleration or deceleration because all the particles move at the same speed of light. Since in this frame of reference physical time is zero and the special relativistic laws of Einstein are like those described by the Newtonian laws. Pure energy consists of quanta particles that have virtual mass and both kinetic and gravitational forces and energies and these are conserved. This means they cannot be created or destroyed. This pure energy is in a form of chaos that is controlled by basic fundamental laws of nature like the Heisenberg uncertainty principle and quantum fluctuation.

It is due to quantum fluctuation that this pure energy can be formed into matter and anti matter and thus into sub-atomic particles like neutron, protons, electrons and all the other sub- atomic particles. This process occurs best in a region of very high density and temperature which exists at the event horizon of black holes. Once the formation of sub-atomic particles have occurred, pure or virtual mass has changed into relativistic mass moving with a speed that is less than the speed of light. This means that these zero rest mass particles exist in physical time or in the fourth dimension where they are governed by the normal laws of Einstein’s special relativity.

A further speculation in the theory here proposed, is that the basic sub-atomic particles like the electrons and protons are mini-black holes with an inner event horizon and an outer horizon where the electric charge is operative. If the charge in the outer event horizon is negative like in an electron, its inner charge would be positive. Conversely, if the inner charge is negative, the outer charge would be positive like in a proton. Furthermore, in the case of the proton which has internal particles like the different quarks particles, these too could possibly be mini-black holes with different internal and external charges.

In John Gribbin’s book IN THE SEARCH OF THE EDGE OF TIME, he mentions that Stephen Hawking suggested the possibility of the existence of mini black holes as small as one hundred thousandth of a gram. These, it was suggested, might have been created at the beginning of time. If quantum particles have always existed from the beginning of time, these could be continually be formed into mini-black holes in the form of sub-atomic particles at the edge of an event horizon of black holes where the pressure and temperature is high enough for this process to occur by means of quantum fluctuation.

John Gribbin also mentions in his book, that two Russian scientists Yakov Zel’dovich and Alex Starobinsky, had discovered that rotating black holes could create particles of energy and could eject them into space. Interestingly, later in the book, John Gribbin says that the effect of rotation on the space time geometry of a black hole is similar to the effect of an electric charge and that the angular momentum of a rotating black hole opposes the inward pull of gravity.

The theory proposed in this work, holds that an electron is a rotating mini-black hole which has an outer electric negative charge with an inner positive core within its event horizon. This electrical charge is due to the movement of the quanta particles and thus the interplay of the gravitational and kinetic forces of the virtual masses of the quanta particles within and without the event horizon of the mini-black hole electron. In other words, the electric-magnetic force is in essence the quantification of quanta particles, or rather the quantification of the gravitational-kinetic force of the quanta particles. The electric-magnetic force, the second fundamental force in nature is basically a quantification of the gravitational-kinetic force, the most fundamental force of nature.

In this theory it is possible to understand that a photon which is a virtual particle carrying an electro-magnetic force known as a boson particle, between two charged or magnetised particles. A photon is basically a quantity of quanta particles or a quantity of electromagnetic radiation which is a combination of electric and magnetic forces and energies. It has no rest mass because quanta particles continually move at the speed of light and thus it is a virtual particle, it can never rest and can never be observed. It can not be seen due to Einstein’s relativity law of length contraction eg. an object moving at the speed of light has zero length. However, a photon has both gravitational and kinetic energies and forces which can be measured as shown by Einstein’s photoelectron effect.

The next fundamental force in nature is the weak nuclear force or also called the weak interaction. It is observed when a neutron particle breaks up forms a proton, an electron and an anti-neutrino. It is about 10^10 times weaker than the electromagnetic interaction and it is observed to exist between leptons and in the decay of hadrons like in the beta decay of particles and nuclei. An understanding of this force is possible when examining the structure of a neutron particle according to the theory proposed in this work.

A neutron particle when it breaks up, forms a proton, an electron and an anti neutrino. According to the theory, both the proton and electron particles are mini-black holes with inner cores and outer charged radii but with different masses and opposite electric charges. The inner core of a proton is negative and its outer core is positive. An electron, on the other hand, has a positive inner core and a negative outer radius. Both particles have gravitational and kinetic energies and it is well known that like electrical charges repel each other and unlike electrical charges attract each other.

If the proton and electron particles are only electrically combined they would form a hydrogen atom. However, in order for an electron particle to come closer to the inner core of the proton particle, it needs extra energy and force to combine the two particles to form a neutron particle. This extra energy or force is needed for the outer negative electrical charge of the electron to overcome the negative charge of the inner core of the proton particle and also for the positive inner electron core to enter the outer positive radius of the proton. This extra force is the weak interaction which is quite unstable and only has a mean life of twelve minutes when the neutron particle is outside the nucleus. This weak interaction is a lepton like a photon and consists of quanta particles and thus also basically consists of a quantity of the gravitational kinetic force.

Thus, the weak nuclear force is basically also a quantification of the gravitational kinetic force that are carried by the quanta particles similar to the electro-magnetic force. There is a difference, however, between the weak nuclear force and the electro-magnetic force. The electro-magnetic force consists of a definite quantity of quanta particles that forms an electron particle and similar to the gravitational-kinetic force is long range. The lepton that acts as a weak nuclear force while it is also composed of quanta particles, operates between the proton and electron in a neutron particle to hold the electron in the outer radius of the proton particle. Its range would therefore, not be long range but rather in a short range because once the neutron dissolves into the different sub-atomic particles, the electron is no longer held in a close bound to the proton particle.

The strong nuclear force or the strong interaction is about 10^2 times stronger than the electro-magnetic force. It acts mainly between the protons and neutrons or the nucleons of a nucleus of an atom, holding them together, giving the nucleus its stability. Similar to the weak nuclear force, its range is short, only about 10^-15 metre, but it is carried by virtual particles known as mesons. These mesons constitute different kinds of quark particles that are speculated to exist within the protons according to a gauge theory called quantum chromodynamics.

According to the theory here proposed, the strong nuclear force is like the weak nuclear force in so far that its range is short operating only within the radius of a nucleus of an atom. However, it is much stronger than the weak nuclear force because it holds different nucleons, protons and neutrons within the nucleus of an atom and not just electrons. The strong nuclear force is so strong because it has to combine particles with similar electrical charges eg. the positive charged particles together which would have a tendency to repel each other. However, if the protons are mini-black holes they would have event horizons that separate the very small inner cores from the much large outer cores. If these inner cores or the event horizons of the protons were very close than the gravitational kinetic force of the black holes would be strong enough to overcome the electro magnetic forces of the particles that would try to keep them separate. This strong gravitational kinetic force acting between the event horizons of the nucleons are the virtual mesons particles.

The inner cores of the nucleons consisting of protons and neutrons, would be black holes which have the same electrical charges and these would prevent them to combine because same electrical charges repel each other. However, the gravitational force of the black holes of the inner cores of the nucleons attract each other and keep them within the boundary of the nucleus. The virtual mesons particles that carry the strong nuclear force consists basically also of a gravitational-kinetic force. Thus the strong nuclear force is also a quantity of the gravitational-kinetic force just like the electro-magnetic and the weak nuclear forces.

The TOE theory here proposed, combines all the different forces of nature consisting basically of quanta virtual particles that carry a specific gravitational kinetic force. These basic quanta particles or forces are conserved and cannot be created or destroyed because they make up the basic pure energy of nature that existed from the beginning of time. These quanta particles or gravitational kinetic forces come in different quantities making up the different fundamental forces or interactions in nature among sub-atomic particles. These four basic interactions or forces are of two kinds. The first two consist of the most basic which is the gravitational kinetic force carried by quanta particles operating between all particles, and the electro magnetic force that is carried by photon particles and operates between nuclei and electrons. Both of these forces are long range meaning that they extend throughout the universe and are govern by the inverse square law meaning that the strength of the force is inversely depending on the square of the distance between the two particles.

The other two fundamental forces in nature are the weak and strong forces or interactions which operate within the nuclei of atoms among proton and neutron particles. Both of these forces are not subject to the inverse square laws and are both short range meaning that they do not extend beyond the radii of the nuclei of atoms. Both the weak and the strong nuclear forces are carried by their own unique particles that consists of quanta particles or gravitational kinetic forces. The main difference between these two nuclear forces and the first two forces is due to the internal structure of the sub-atomic particles between which these two nuclear forces operate.

The nuclear forces act between electrons, neutrons and protons which are mini-black holes with very small internal event horizon radii and a much larger wavelength radii with different electrical charges. The weak nuclear force operates within a neutron particle combining an electron sub-atomic particle within an proton sub-atomic particle. The strong nuclear force combines protons and neutrons atoms within a nucleus of an atom and is thus much stronger than the weak nuclear force because it has to overcome much greater electro-magnetic and gravitational- kinetic forces of the different nucleons.

The TOE theory here proposed does not destroy the basic knowledge of the four fundamental forces of nature but rather tries to give a different interpretation of how they are united and how they interact in nature. The theory here proposed only gives a very brief outline on a possible new direction in the investigation of the search for a complete theory of everything. It certainly does not answer all the questions but rather raises new questions that could lead to a new and deeper understanding of the nature of the universe.