THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE. PART III.
CHAPTER III.
THE FIFTH DIMENSION.
The success of Einstein’s special relativity theory was partly due to the fact that Albert Einstein recognised that the speed of light in a vacuum, is constant. While in a moving object viewed by an observer, the time, the length and the mass of the moving object depends on its speed relative to the observer, the speed of light would always be the same to any observer whether at rest or in motion. The fact that the speed of light is the ultimate limit of physical movement, and the fact that no physical object can move faster than the speed of light, are two very important elements that must be considered. According to our theory, nothing can move at the speed of light except quanta particles or virtual mass and their movement is constant in a vacuum. This fact places the quanta world in a very special dimension, different and unique from the other four dimensions or frame of references.
The ordinary understanding of a frame of reference is a set of reference axes for defining the position of an object in space. The first three dimensions or frame of references that give the length, breath and height of an object are known as the inertial frame in which Newton’s laws of motion apply. In this inertial frame the object is seen as moving in a straight line at constant speed unless a force changes its motion. This frame of reference is considered to be at rest and this enables the position of an object in space to be defined at any moment of time. Albert Einstein suggested that all inertial frames are exactly equivalent to one another and all the objects in this frame of reference can be regarded to be at rest and they could measure any other object in the universe, relative to their own frame.
This inertial frame of reference was good if the objects remained at constant speed, relative to one another. But Einstein showed that this was not always the case and when objects were accelerated or decelerated relative to one another a different frame of reference became operative. According to Einstein’s law of relativity, the law of time dilation altered the length of time of an object relative to another object depending on its speed. This formed another frame of reference known as the fourth dimension and it consists of a coordinate system that is linked to time. In this four-dimensional frame of reference known as the space time continuum, the frame of reference consists of a set of four coordinate axes, three spatial and one of time.
Newton’s inertial frame of reference works when objects do not change their speed relative to one another. As long as the objects move at the same speed their position and movement can be measured in the same three dimensional frame of reference. However, as soon as their speed alters relative to one another, they operate in a space time continuum where Einstein’s special relativity laws come into play. The difference is not very noticeable until the speeds come near to the speed of light. Ordinarily, Newtonian frame of reference is used when measuring the movements of objects on earth, or even the movements of the earth, moon, planets and stars. The difference is very noticeable, however, when calculating the speed of sub-atomic particles that come close to the speed of light.
While matter or rest mass objects may move at the same speed, relative to one another and so form a Newtonian inertial frame of reference, their movements are not always constant and do change. As soon as there is a change, the fourth dimensional space time continuum comes into force. In regards to quanta particles, this is not possible. Quanta particles cannot increase or decrease their energy, their virtual mass, momentum and their speed. This fact places the quanta particles in a very unique Newtonian frame of reference that I like to call the fifth dimension. The fact that quanta particles or photons travel at a constant speed in free space or vacuum is one of the fundamental constant that does not change in the universe and is one of the fundamental basis on which rest Einstein’s relativity laws.
One of the puzzle in quantum mechanics is that signals between the quantum particles seem to be travelling backwards in time, as if there exist instantaneous communication between them, even when they are widely separated. This strange phenomenon might be explained by the notion of the fifth dimension. Viewed from the fourth dimension in which we live, relative time has stopped because according to the time dilation principle of the special relativity laws, relative time becomes zero when the particles move at the speed of light. This does not mean, however, that the electromagnetic particles have stopped moving or that time in the fifth dimension has stopped progressing second after second. It means that for us in the fourth dimension observing the fifth dimension the time dimension is the same throughout this frame of reference. This means that events seem to happen simultaneously throughout the dimension independently where ever they may be. This would give the appearance that there does exists instantaneous communication among the particles even if they are far apart; this could give the appearance as if signals between the particles seem to be travelling backward in time.
This idea of a fifth dimension will be very important when examining the black hole and its implication to sub-atomic particles, a grand unifying theory and indeed, the universe as a whole. If a fifth dimension does exist in which quanta particles operate, it could fundamentally change our understanding of physical nature. If the physical nature of the universe has a fifth dimension, it naturally include all the other dimensions.
From our common experience we are all familiar with the Newtonian inertial frame of reference in which we observe the existence and movements of massive objects. The scientists have proven that a fourth space time dimension exists in massive objects that change their velocity relative to one another. The fifth dimension places the quanta particles, the photons or electromagnetic radiations or virtual mass, in a frame of reference that is unique and universal. It is the base dimension that will help to explain many of the still outstanding mysteries of the universe.
Thursday, December 16, 2010
Sunday, December 12, 2010
THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE.
PART 2 THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE.
CHAPTER I.
BASIC PRINCIPLES.
4. QUANTUM THEORY.
The scientist Max Planck (1858-1947) proposed, in 1900, that electromagnetic radiation or energy, can be emitted or absorbed only in definite units, which he called quanta. It was Einstein, however, who first proposed that electromagnetic radiation which included light, could be made up of individual particles known as photons. Scientists were able to work out the Planck’s constant which is a fundamental constant in nature that relates the energy of a photon to its frequency.
E = f h
where (f) is the frequency and (h) is the Planck constant. This formula relates the particle nature of a quantum entity to its wave nature. It was Einstein who was able to explain, in 1905, the photoelectric effect that showed that photons had momentum and could be described in terms of particle-like quanta.
E = p c
where (p) is the term for momentum and (c) is the speed of light in a vacuum. This means that light or photon consist of quanta particles that at the same time, have a wave nature and a particle nature. These insights were the key steps that led to the development of the quantum theory.
The physicist Richard Feynman(1918-1988) talked about the central mystery of quantum mechanics which is that quantum entities have both wave and particle properties. They seem to travel as waves but depart and arrive as particles. They seem to exist in a special frame of reference where the quantum particles enjoy instantaneous communication even when they are widely separated. Werner Heisenberg(1901-1976) discovered a property of quantum mechanics in 1920 that is known as the uncertainty principle. This principle states that there exists an intrinsic uncertainty in nature that prevents us knowing simultaneously the exact position and momentum of a quantum particle.
This principle has been applied to all objects in the universe and some have even tried to apply it to energy and time. Quantum uncertainty according to some theorists, allows the temporary creation of electron-positron pairs and other particle and anti-particle pairs to appear out of nothing eg. out of a vacuum. Stephen Hawking (1942- ) talks about black-holes radiating or giving out energies that is known as the Hawking radiation. Some theorists seem to say that due to this quantum uncertainty which allows the temporary creation of bubbles out of nothing, could be the origin of the universe. They talk about a monopole universe or a universe that exists inside a single magnetic monopole that was produced by inflation after the temporary creation of a bubble. All these theories describe what is known as a "free lunch universe" because they all hold that the universe came out of nothing due to a quantum or vacuum fluctuation.
CHAPTER II.
THE MISSING MASS.
The basis of all the theories of a so called "free lunch universe", is the acceptance of the idea of a quantum or a vacuum fluctuation. This fluctuation which theoretically allows the creation of matter and anti matter out of nothing, is based on the uncertainty principle found in quantum mechanics. However, such a theory seems to violate the laws of logic and a very important law of physics, the law of conservation of energy and momentum.
If the energy of the universe came into existence due to an uncertainty than the whole universe could be considered to be basically irrational. It would have come into existence just by chance. If in fact energy could just pop into existence out of nothing it certainly violates Einstein’s basic law of conservation of energy and momentum which states that energy and momentum cannot be created or destroyed. This problem, however, does not arise if it is postulated that pure energy exists before the formation of matter and anti matter particles by means of quantum fluctuation. The formation of matter and anti matter is basically not from nothing but from pure energy existing in a state of chaos at the beginning of time.
Let us leave aside for the moment the various cosmological theories which are ingenious and which certainly do try to solve scientific problems that confront the big bang cosmologists. It might be helpful to try to interpret some of the basic scientific laws and discoveries in a way that do not violate either reason or the fundamental laws of modern physics. This could give an alternate view of the physical universe and answer some of the remaining cosmological mysteries.
One of the remaining cosmological problem is the mystery of the 90 percent of the missing mass of the universe. Scientists have known since the 1930 that all the matter observed in our galaxy, is insufficient to account for the movements of its stars. By 1980 it was calculated that there possibly exists about ten times more missing matter than the matter observed in the galaxies themselves. This assumption was made to explain the fact that stars and indeed the galaxies themselves, are held in place by several times more material than can be observed to exist in the galaxies. Only recently, scientists have also observed an unexplained extra tug of gravity that is slowing the outward bound movement of the two satellites Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11. This mysterious effect has also been observed in other satellites like the Ulysses probe, and the Galileo satellite that is orbiting among Jupiter’s moons.
This missing mass is referred to by scientists as dark matter but they are uncertain what it consists off. There are various theories and speculations. Some would say that there are many brown dwarfs, huge sun like masses but not big enough to start nuclear fusion to become stars. Others would speculate the existence of huge black holes in the centre of galaxies. These objects are called by scientists by the acronym ‘MACH Os", standing for ‘massive astronomical compact halo objects’. Other theories talk about ‘WIMPS’ or ‘weakly interacting massive particles’ particles that consist of matter but only interact weakly with ordinary Byronic matter. According to the big bang theory there are two kinds, the CDM or Cold Dark Matter which are particles that have come from the big bang but travel very much slower than the speed of light. The other kind is the HDM or Hot Dark Matter, particles that travel with speeds that are close to that of light. Non of these CDM and HDM WIMPs particles have ever been directly detected also a possible candidate would be one of the neutrino particles.
A possible answer to this problem of the missing mass or dark matter may be found by reexamining both Einstein’s relativity theory and the quantum theory. Max Planck showed that energy comes in entities that are known as quanta particles. Each quantum particle has a specific quantity of energy that can be measured. Albert Einstein showed that matter or mass can be changed into energy and energy into mass and that mass and energy obey the law of conservation, eg. it cannot be created or destroyed. The Quantum theory says that energy, which is electromagnetic radiation has two distinct features; it moves like a wave and acts like a particle. Werner Heisenberg discovered the uncertainty principle; the fact that both of these features are so linked that they cannot both be precisely determined at the same time. Einstein also proved that light, photons or electromagnetic radiations are affected by gravity and have momentum by the photoelectric effect. Einstein’s general theory of relativity holds that the gravitational mass and inertial mass is equivalent.
If photons or quanta particles are affected by gravity and have momentum they posses the qualities of mass. However, since the quanta particles move at the speed of light, the particles have no measurable length due to the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction. Quanta energy is finite and it is conserved; in other words, it cannot increase in mass and energy, and it cannot loose any mass or energy. These facts make the quantum particle a very unique entity. It moves at the speed of light, its mass and energy is conserved, its length cannot be measured and it has both gravitational and inertial properties. It is like mass but a very special mass that does not act like ordinary relativity mass. Ordinary relativity mass can increase and decrease its mass and energy and it is affected by its speed which can not be as great as the speed of light. I like to call this special zero rest mass or non-relativity mass, virtual mass, because it has the qualities of gravity and inertia but it is not affected by relativity.
This means that the quantum particle acts and behaves like other massive objects both by gravity and by inertia. Quanta particles can act upon each other by gravitationally attracting each other. However, it cannot increase the quanta’s speed but it can bend the direction of the particles’ movement. The quanta’s effect on other zero-rest mass particles it both increases the gravitational and inertial factors.
The energy (E) of quanta particles are well known and can be measured according to the formula:
E = f h
where (f) is its frequency and (h) is Planck’s constant.
By using Einstein’s mass energy equation:
E = m c^2
it is possible to work out the virtual mass of quanta particles:
m^0 = (f h) / c^2
where (m^0) is the virtual mass.
The mass of the quantum particle is called ‘virtual mass’ in order to distinguish it from ordinary or relativistic mass. Ordinary or relativistic mass is the mass of those particles that have zero rest masses. These mass particles have masses when they are at rest and do not move. The zero rest mass quantum particle cannot be at rest but is constantly moving at the speed of light. Relativistic mass or an ordinary mass particle can increase or decrease its speed and as its speeds increases, its mass will also increase. But the mass particle can never reach the speed of light because its mass would become infinite. The virtual mass has no rest mass and cannot increase its speed. It moves constantly at the speed of light, it cannot decrease or increase its speed, virtual mass, momentum or energy.
If quanta particles do posses virtual mass it would explain many mysteries in the universe. It could explain the movements of the stars in our galaxy, the mysterious movement of galaxies in the universe or even the mysterious gravitational tug of the solar system on the various satellites. It would explain why photons have momentum, why they are attracted by gravity and it would explain why an object that increases its speed also increases its mass and momentum. These phenomena are scientifically verifiable and are according to Einstein’s special relativity theory.
The virtual mass of the quanta particles could possibly also give an explanation to the Heiselberg uncertainty principle. Since the quanta particles move at the speed of light, their length can not be observed and measured because of the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction. If their length can not be measured it is impossible to determined their position in space because they do not rest but are constantly on the move. As soon as one tries to place its position it has already moved. If their position cannot be determined, their momentum can also not be determined at the same time. However, both its virtual mass and its momentum can be measured separately as in the case of virtual photons of quantum mechanics. The virtual particles are responsible for a gravitational and kinetic force, they carry energy and can be converted into real mass.
Stephen Hawking speculated about black holes radiating energy, known as the Hawking radiation, which he said was due to the quantum uncertainty that allows for quantum fluctuation. Scientists like to speculate that the creation of the universe was due to quantum fluctuation where pairs of sub-atomic particles (matter and anti-matter) popped into existence out of nothing. If energy, quanta particles or electric-magnetic radiation, however, consists of virtual mass which cannot be observed, it is more likely that quantum fluctuation is not a creation out of nothing but rather the formation of real mass or matter out of virtual mass. Due to the quantum uncertainty, this process could occur anytime anywhere but it is more likely to happen where the temperature and pressure are very high. This situation would be near the event horizon of a black hole as Stephen Hawking has speculated.
It is of great interest that experiments conducted at the Super-Kamiokande neutrino detector, have indicated that neutrinos have mass. Neutrinos come in three types: tau, muon and electron and each has its antimatter counterpart. In the experiments muon neutrinos were observed to change into tau neutrinos which could only be possible if the particles had some kind of mass.
While these experiments could possibly help in answering the question of the missing mass in the universe, scientists do not believe that they give a full explanation to the mystery. However, if it is possible to prove scientifically that neutrinos do have mass, than it might also be possible to prove the existence of virtual mass. If electric-magnetic radiation has virtual mass that affects both gravitation and momentum, it could explain the mystery of the missing mass in the universe.
CHAPTER I.
BASIC PRINCIPLES.
4. QUANTUM THEORY.
The scientist Max Planck (1858-1947) proposed, in 1900, that electromagnetic radiation or energy, can be emitted or absorbed only in definite units, which he called quanta. It was Einstein, however, who first proposed that electromagnetic radiation which included light, could be made up of individual particles known as photons. Scientists were able to work out the Planck’s constant which is a fundamental constant in nature that relates the energy of a photon to its frequency.
E = f h
where (f) is the frequency and (h) is the Planck constant. This formula relates the particle nature of a quantum entity to its wave nature. It was Einstein who was able to explain, in 1905, the photoelectric effect that showed that photons had momentum and could be described in terms of particle-like quanta.
E = p c
where (p) is the term for momentum and (c) is the speed of light in a vacuum. This means that light or photon consist of quanta particles that at the same time, have a wave nature and a particle nature. These insights were the key steps that led to the development of the quantum theory.
The physicist Richard Feynman(1918-1988) talked about the central mystery of quantum mechanics which is that quantum entities have both wave and particle properties. They seem to travel as waves but depart and arrive as particles. They seem to exist in a special frame of reference where the quantum particles enjoy instantaneous communication even when they are widely separated. Werner Heisenberg(1901-1976) discovered a property of quantum mechanics in 1920 that is known as the uncertainty principle. This principle states that there exists an intrinsic uncertainty in nature that prevents us knowing simultaneously the exact position and momentum of a quantum particle.
This principle has been applied to all objects in the universe and some have even tried to apply it to energy and time. Quantum uncertainty according to some theorists, allows the temporary creation of electron-positron pairs and other particle and anti-particle pairs to appear out of nothing eg. out of a vacuum. Stephen Hawking (1942- ) talks about black-holes radiating or giving out energies that is known as the Hawking radiation. Some theorists seem to say that due to this quantum uncertainty which allows the temporary creation of bubbles out of nothing, could be the origin of the universe. They talk about a monopole universe or a universe that exists inside a single magnetic monopole that was produced by inflation after the temporary creation of a bubble. All these theories describe what is known as a "free lunch universe" because they all hold that the universe came out of nothing due to a quantum or vacuum fluctuation.
CHAPTER II.
THE MISSING MASS.
The basis of all the theories of a so called "free lunch universe", is the acceptance of the idea of a quantum or a vacuum fluctuation. This fluctuation which theoretically allows the creation of matter and anti matter out of nothing, is based on the uncertainty principle found in quantum mechanics. However, such a theory seems to violate the laws of logic and a very important law of physics, the law of conservation of energy and momentum.
If the energy of the universe came into existence due to an uncertainty than the whole universe could be considered to be basically irrational. It would have come into existence just by chance. If in fact energy could just pop into existence out of nothing it certainly violates Einstein’s basic law of conservation of energy and momentum which states that energy and momentum cannot be created or destroyed. This problem, however, does not arise if it is postulated that pure energy exists before the formation of matter and anti matter particles by means of quantum fluctuation. The formation of matter and anti matter is basically not from nothing but from pure energy existing in a state of chaos at the beginning of time.
Let us leave aside for the moment the various cosmological theories which are ingenious and which certainly do try to solve scientific problems that confront the big bang cosmologists. It might be helpful to try to interpret some of the basic scientific laws and discoveries in a way that do not violate either reason or the fundamental laws of modern physics. This could give an alternate view of the physical universe and answer some of the remaining cosmological mysteries.
One of the remaining cosmological problem is the mystery of the 90 percent of the missing mass of the universe. Scientists have known since the 1930 that all the matter observed in our galaxy, is insufficient to account for the movements of its stars. By 1980 it was calculated that there possibly exists about ten times more missing matter than the matter observed in the galaxies themselves. This assumption was made to explain the fact that stars and indeed the galaxies themselves, are held in place by several times more material than can be observed to exist in the galaxies. Only recently, scientists have also observed an unexplained extra tug of gravity that is slowing the outward bound movement of the two satellites Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11. This mysterious effect has also been observed in other satellites like the Ulysses probe, and the Galileo satellite that is orbiting among Jupiter’s moons.
This missing mass is referred to by scientists as dark matter but they are uncertain what it consists off. There are various theories and speculations. Some would say that there are many brown dwarfs, huge sun like masses but not big enough to start nuclear fusion to become stars. Others would speculate the existence of huge black holes in the centre of galaxies. These objects are called by scientists by the acronym ‘MACH Os", standing for ‘massive astronomical compact halo objects’. Other theories talk about ‘WIMPS’ or ‘weakly interacting massive particles’ particles that consist of matter but only interact weakly with ordinary Byronic matter. According to the big bang theory there are two kinds, the CDM or Cold Dark Matter which are particles that have come from the big bang but travel very much slower than the speed of light. The other kind is the HDM or Hot Dark Matter, particles that travel with speeds that are close to that of light. Non of these CDM and HDM WIMPs particles have ever been directly detected also a possible candidate would be one of the neutrino particles.
A possible answer to this problem of the missing mass or dark matter may be found by reexamining both Einstein’s relativity theory and the quantum theory. Max Planck showed that energy comes in entities that are known as quanta particles. Each quantum particle has a specific quantity of energy that can be measured. Albert Einstein showed that matter or mass can be changed into energy and energy into mass and that mass and energy obey the law of conservation, eg. it cannot be created or destroyed. The Quantum theory says that energy, which is electromagnetic radiation has two distinct features; it moves like a wave and acts like a particle. Werner Heisenberg discovered the uncertainty principle; the fact that both of these features are so linked that they cannot both be precisely determined at the same time. Einstein also proved that light, photons or electromagnetic radiations are affected by gravity and have momentum by the photoelectric effect. Einstein’s general theory of relativity holds that the gravitational mass and inertial mass is equivalent.
If photons or quanta particles are affected by gravity and have momentum they posses the qualities of mass. However, since the quanta particles move at the speed of light, the particles have no measurable length due to the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction. Quanta energy is finite and it is conserved; in other words, it cannot increase in mass and energy, and it cannot loose any mass or energy. These facts make the quantum particle a very unique entity. It moves at the speed of light, its mass and energy is conserved, its length cannot be measured and it has both gravitational and inertial properties. It is like mass but a very special mass that does not act like ordinary relativity mass. Ordinary relativity mass can increase and decrease its mass and energy and it is affected by its speed which can not be as great as the speed of light. I like to call this special zero rest mass or non-relativity mass, virtual mass, because it has the qualities of gravity and inertia but it is not affected by relativity.
This means that the quantum particle acts and behaves like other massive objects both by gravity and by inertia. Quanta particles can act upon each other by gravitationally attracting each other. However, it cannot increase the quanta’s speed but it can bend the direction of the particles’ movement. The quanta’s effect on other zero-rest mass particles it both increases the gravitational and inertial factors.
The energy (E) of quanta particles are well known and can be measured according to the formula:
E = f h
where (f) is its frequency and (h) is Planck’s constant.
By using Einstein’s mass energy equation:
E = m c^2
it is possible to work out the virtual mass of quanta particles:
m^0 = (f h) / c^2
where (m^0) is the virtual mass.
The mass of the quantum particle is called ‘virtual mass’ in order to distinguish it from ordinary or relativistic mass. Ordinary or relativistic mass is the mass of those particles that have zero rest masses. These mass particles have masses when they are at rest and do not move. The zero rest mass quantum particle cannot be at rest but is constantly moving at the speed of light. Relativistic mass or an ordinary mass particle can increase or decrease its speed and as its speeds increases, its mass will also increase. But the mass particle can never reach the speed of light because its mass would become infinite. The virtual mass has no rest mass and cannot increase its speed. It moves constantly at the speed of light, it cannot decrease or increase its speed, virtual mass, momentum or energy.
If quanta particles do posses virtual mass it would explain many mysteries in the universe. It could explain the movements of the stars in our galaxy, the mysterious movement of galaxies in the universe or even the mysterious gravitational tug of the solar system on the various satellites. It would explain why photons have momentum, why they are attracted by gravity and it would explain why an object that increases its speed also increases its mass and momentum. These phenomena are scientifically verifiable and are according to Einstein’s special relativity theory.
The virtual mass of the quanta particles could possibly also give an explanation to the Heiselberg uncertainty principle. Since the quanta particles move at the speed of light, their length can not be observed and measured because of the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction. If their length can not be measured it is impossible to determined their position in space because they do not rest but are constantly on the move. As soon as one tries to place its position it has already moved. If their position cannot be determined, their momentum can also not be determined at the same time. However, both its virtual mass and its momentum can be measured separately as in the case of virtual photons of quantum mechanics. The virtual particles are responsible for a gravitational and kinetic force, they carry energy and can be converted into real mass.
Stephen Hawking speculated about black holes radiating energy, known as the Hawking radiation, which he said was due to the quantum uncertainty that allows for quantum fluctuation. Scientists like to speculate that the creation of the universe was due to quantum fluctuation where pairs of sub-atomic particles (matter and anti-matter) popped into existence out of nothing. If energy, quanta particles or electric-magnetic radiation, however, consists of virtual mass which cannot be observed, it is more likely that quantum fluctuation is not a creation out of nothing but rather the formation of real mass or matter out of virtual mass. Due to the quantum uncertainty, this process could occur anytime anywhere but it is more likely to happen where the temperature and pressure are very high. This situation would be near the event horizon of a black hole as Stephen Hawking has speculated.
It is of great interest that experiments conducted at the Super-Kamiokande neutrino detector, have indicated that neutrinos have mass. Neutrinos come in three types: tau, muon and electron and each has its antimatter counterpart. In the experiments muon neutrinos were observed to change into tau neutrinos which could only be possible if the particles had some kind of mass.
While these experiments could possibly help in answering the question of the missing mass in the universe, scientists do not believe that they give a full explanation to the mystery. However, if it is possible to prove scientifically that neutrinos do have mass, than it might also be possible to prove the existence of virtual mass. If electric-magnetic radiation has virtual mass that affects both gravitation and momentum, it could explain the mystery of the missing mass in the universe.
Friday, December 10, 2010
THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE.
THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE.
A LOOK AT OUR BEAUTIFUL UNIVERSE.
INTRODUCTION.
The physical cosmos is so fascinating that it is an object of observation, study and speculation of many people. These includes scientists, philosophers, theologians, artists and a multitude of ordinary people with a great love for the universe. I am one of those who loves to examine all aspects of the cosmos. I am fascinated by its mystery and I have a particular cosmic vision which I would like to share with anyone who would be interested.
I have written a work which I called ‘COSMIC VISION’ and it dealt with a comprehensive and complementary understanding of the cosmos from three aspects: the physical, the rational and the transcendent. I like to call myself a cosmovisionist because to obtain a holistic understanding of the cosmos, one has to view it from these three different aspects. In this present work I would like to restrict myself, but not exclusively, on the physical aspect of the cosmos.
My view of the physical cosmos differs somewhat from the ordinary held views of cosmologists today. I do not want to dispute their theories but I would like to present my vision as clearly as I can, hoping that it has some merit.
I would like to dedicate my work to all cosmic beings because we all share in the most basic and fascinating element which is ‘to be’. We all have mutual rights and responsibilities to live and cooperate in peace, harmony and justice. I am very grateful to every person and creature that has made me to be who I am and I strive to grow in knowledge and love as far as it is possible. I would like to invite all to come to grow in the knowledge, wisdom and mutual love of our beautiful cosmos.
AUTHOR: HANS J. MEYER
TABLE OF CONTENT.
TITLE PAGE: PP. 1
INTRODUCTION: PP. 2
TABLE OF CONTENT: PP. 3
CHAPTER I. BASIC PRINCIPLES. PP. 4
1. ARISTOLE. PP. 4
2. ISAAC NEWTON. PP. 8
3. ALBERT EINSTEIN. PP. 1I
4. QUANTUM THEORY. PP. 14
CHAPTER II. THE MISSING MASS. PP. 16
CHAPTER III. THE FIFTH DIMENSION. PP. 21
CHAPTER IV. A GRAVITATIONAL-KINETIC FORCE. PP. 24
CHAPTER V. A BLACK-HOLE. PP. 31
CHAPTER VI. A THEORY OF EVERYTHING (TOE). PP. 37
CHAPTER VII. A BACK-HOLE UNIVERSE (B.H.U.) PP. 45
CHAPTER VIII. UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS. PP. 53
CHAPTER IX. COSMOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES. PP. 59
CHAPTER X. CONTINUOUS COSMIC EVOLUTION. PP. 71
CHAPTER I.
BASIC PRINCIPLES.
The universe is govern by fundamental physical principles, many of which have been discovered. It is important to know them in order to get a better understanding of the cosmos in which we live. The universe is so great and immense that it presence itself as a mystery to anyone who is trying to comprehend it. The task is to apply our intelligence, our collective memory, skills and knowledge to unravel these mysteries and so to contribute to a deeper appreciation and understanding of the cosmos. This becomes a universal challenge to all but particularly to those who have the skills, intelligence and opportunity. It is not restricted to the physical scientists but must also involve the philosophers, the theologians, the artists and every person who feels urged to contribute in any way possible.
1. ARISTOTLE.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) was one of the greatest philosopher of the ancient Greek world who had a tremendous influence in the development of the Western European culture and civilisation. He was the teacher of the young Alexander the Great who conquered a great part of Western Asia and thus spread Greek culture and Aristotelian thought over the ancient world. Aristotle was a profound meta physician who tried to investigate the causes of things. He was not a physical scientist in our present day understanding, but he did study nature and was able to come to some very important discoveries that has helped us in the understanding of the universe.
As a philosopher, Aristotle knew the principle of sufficient reason. He knew and accepted the principle that: nothing can come from nothing. In a rational world there must exist a sufficient reason for everything that exists, which would explain its existence. One of the greatest puzzle is "existence" itself. Why does anything exist at all? But because we know intuitively that we exist, we also know intuitively that existence must exist. We further know that we are only finite; our existence does not explain the cause of our existence. In other words, we did not make ourselves because we are finite. Using the principle of sufficient reason, we can conclude that infinite existence itself must exist, that gives existence to finite beings. This infinite existence was called by Aristotle as the first cause, the cause or reason of all that exists.
These may seem to be intuitive or obvious statements but they are very important and need to be remembered and respected especially when it comes to the understanding of the universe. The universe could not have just formed itself out of nothing, this would be irrational because the universe itself is only finite and not infinite. To Aristotle there existed a first and a sufficient cause of everything that exists. It is the first and sufficient cause of everything that alone can give a sufficient reason of existence. To Aristotle this first and sufficient cause and reason of everything was pure essence, beingness itself, that gives beingness to everything that exists. The first and sufficient cause of everything that exists is universally acknowledged by intelligent people in all civilisation. To understand and to accept the existence of a first cause requires sufficient knowledge, intelligence and intellectual honesty. The first cause is pure act and acts from eternity.
The notion of an eternal act is difficult to understand and is closely linked with the notion of time. The concept of time can be threefold. Normally, our common or logical understanding of time means the past, the present and the future. What happened before the present is in the past and what will happen after the present is the future. We are all familiar with this understanding of the notion of time. We all were born in the past, we live in the presence now and we all will die in the future. Logical time is measured by comparing the period of time of a repetitive action. A year for example, is the period of time that the earth requires to revolve once around the sun. This is the normal experience and understanding of logical time of all thinking people.
However, Albert Einstein open up to us another understanding of the notion of time. The physical or relative notion of time which is time dilation. Time in the physical world is relative; it depends on the speed of a moving object relative to another object. The faster the object moves relative to another object the slower is its time factor. If the speed of an object nears the speed of light, its time factor is slowed down. No massive object can move at the speed of light where its time factor would be zero. This is a very different understanding from our common perception of time but it is very important and relevant when it comes to understand the physical universe.
There is another understanding of time which could be called transcendent; it is beyond the understanding of our common experience. It is different from physical time as used by the scientists when measuring the movement of sub-atomic particles. This transcendent notion of time is eternal time where there is no past or future but only an eternal presence. It is this notion of time that is applied to the first cause, or to the pure essence of existence. The first cause of everything has no past or future but exists only in an eternal presence. It is pure act that gives existence to everything that exists in the past, presence and future. This is a difficult notion of time but it is reasonable. If the first cause of everything that exists, is pure act and acts in an eternal presence, it is reasonable to say that it acts from eternity to eternity. Its action is eternal.
When viewing the universe from our common sense experience of time, we are inclined to say that the universe must have had a beginning because we have no experience of eternal time. From the physical understanding of time it is possible to say that the universe began when time began. This happened when massive or when non zero rest mass objects were formed out of pure energy, and moved with a speed lesser than the speed of light. Pure energy, however, which moves at the speed of light exists in a dimension of its own which I like to call the fifth dimension. In this dimension physical time has stopped or is zero because pure energy or electromagnetic radiation moves at the speed of light.
From the transcendent notion of time, it is reasonable to say that the universe, caused by the first cause is eternal. This notion is reasonable and can give an explanation to the physical laws of conservation of energy which states that energy can not be created or destroyed; in other words, it must be eternal. Scientists also hold that the basic laws that govern the universe are immutable. If the first cause, is the cause or origin of all the energy in the universe and the evolutionary process that governs the universe, than the universe can be considered to be eternal. The great medieval theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas had no difficulty in accepting the concept of an eternal universe as long as it was accepted that the first cause is the origin and end of everything that exists.
Aristotle contributed to our scientific understanding of the universe in teaching that for every movement there must be a cause or a force. For an object that is at rest to acquire movement, there must exist a cause, a power or a force that makes it to move. This was a profound insight into the nature of the physical universe. Aristotle might not have been aware of the different forces in nature and the laws of movement which were discovered much later. He was, however, aware of the existence of at least some physical forces that gave movement to the heavenly bodies.
Aristotle’s vision of the universe was rather limited when compared to our present day understanding. The earth was regarded as the center of the universe and all the planets, stars, sun and moon moved in concentric spheres around the earth and they determined their different orbits. This vision of the universe was firmly established by the work of the great astronomer Claudius Ptolemies of Alexandria (100-178 AD). It was so deeply held and taught as gospel truth that it lasted for over a millennium. Eventually, as new knowledge, evidence and facts where discovered, this vision was challenged and could no longer be held valid.
2. ISAAC NEWTON.
In the sixteen century, scientists were developing a new model of the universe. This new idea or vision of the cosmos was strengthened when Nicholas Copernican’s book, On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies was published just before his death in 1543. The new cosmic vision placed the sun as the center of the universe and had all the planets including the earth, revolving around the sun. Galileo Galileo (1564-1642) born about twenty three years after Copernicus's’ death, was the first person to use a refracting telescope for observing the heavens. He made a systematic observation of the heavens, giving observational evidence for a Sun-centred solar system as was predicted by Copernicus (1473-1543).
At the time of Galileo, also lived the great astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) who realised that the universe could not be infinite but must be finite because the darkness of the night sky directly conflicts with the idea of an infinite universe filled with luminous stars. Kepler was able to discover by using the astronomical data gathered by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), the three laws of motion of the planets around the sun. These laws were important for the work of Newton to discover the law of gravity.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was one of the greatest physicist and mathematician of his time. He was able to discover the universal law of gravity and the laws of motion than bear his name. He was able to see that the reason why the planets moved in an elliptical orbits is that gravity obeys an inverse square law. He published his book The Principia in 1687 which had a great influence in the scientific development for the next three hundred years.
Newton left two important contribution to science. One was the law of gravity which states that the force between two masses any where in the universe, is proportional to the product of the two masses divided by the square of the distant (s) between them:
where (G) is the gravitational constant and (s) is the distant between the two objects or masses (m1 and m2). The other great contribution of Newton were the three laws of motion.
1. Every object continuous in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted upon by a force.
2. An applied force changes the momentum (p)of an object:
This means that the force (F) is related to the mass of an object (m) and the acceleration (a):
3. Whenever a force is applied to an object, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The great contribution of Newton to an understanding of the universe is the idea of the conservation of both kinetic and gravitational energy and forces. After a force has been applied to an object it gains kinetic energy which remains conserved as momentum. The momentum of an object which has kinetic energy, is released when the movement of the object is stopped. This can be clearly seen when an asteroid hits a planet. The kinetic energy or the force of the impact of the asteroid can cause tremendous damage. It is therefore possible to conclude that a moving object which has kinetic energy, carries a potential kinetic force. Similarly, the potential gravitational energy carries the gravitational force which is released when an object falls due to the attraction of the force of gravity.
If Aristotle taught that there must be a cause, a power, or a force for an object at rest to move, or a moving object to gain more momentum, Newton showed that this force or power is conserved in the momentum of a moving object. This meant that a moving object or mass would remain in the state of constant motion unless it was acted upon by another force. The force is only needed for the acceleration or deceleration of an object. A moving object has momentum depending on the speed and mass of the object. It contains kinetic energy which can be change into other forms of energy like gravitational potential energy, but this change can only come by means of a force. There are two basic forces and energies gravitational and kinetic.
3. ALBERT EINSTEIN.
The next great revolution in the understanding of the universe came in the early twenty century. Since the time of Newton there had been tremendous scientific developments and discoveries. However, it was Albert Einstein (1879-1955) who was able to discover the laws of relativity which altered the very concept of the nature of the physical world. The idea had always been that time was always constant and that it was independent from the speed of an object. Einstein showed that time, length and the mass of an object depended on the speed of an object relative to another object. The faster an object moved, its time and length would decrease and its mass would increase. What was constant was the speed of light in a vacuum and no physical object could move as fast as the speed of light. He showed that every object was relative to one another depending on its speed. This meant that every object was in constant relative motion in regards to all other objects in the universe.
The principle that affects time according to Einstein’s special relativity theory, is know as time dilation. It states that the intervals of time are not absolute but are relative to the motion of the observers. This means that for a moving object its time element is affected depending on its velocity relative to an another object in the same frame of reference :
where is the time when the object is at rest, (v) is the velocity of the moving object, (c) is the velocity of light and (t) is the time of the moving object relative to the other object. This would mean that if an mass object could move with the speed of light, the relative time of the object would be zero. This idea to Einstein, would be impossible. This formula shows that no massive object can move at the speed of light.
According to the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction, which is another consequence of Einstein’s special relativity theory, the length of an object moving relative from another, seem to decrease according to the speed of the moving object:
where is the length when the object is at rest, (v) is the speed of the object, (c) is the speed of light and (l) is the relative length viewed by the other observer. This formula shows that if a massive object could move at the speed of light its length would become zero or invisible.
The third relativity law that affects a moving object is known as relativistic mass. This is the mass of a moving object as it is measured by someone who is in the same frame of reference as the moving object. The mass seems to increase as its speed is increased, relative to the observer. The formula is:
where is the rest mass of the moving object, (v) is its speed,(c) is the speed of light, and (m) is its relativistic mass. It can be deduced from this formula that no massive object that has a non zero rest mass, can move at the speed of light otherwise its mass would be infinite which is obviously impossible.
This important insight into the nature of physical reality meant that the Newtonian laws of motion where not absolutely correct. They would still be useful for objects that moved at relatively slow speeds compared with the speed of light and for this purpose they are still being applied. But Newtonian laws of motion would be insufficient when the speed of the object came near to the speed of light. Objects moving near the speed of light were govern by Einstein’s law of special relativity. These laws predicted certain phenomena in nature which can and have often been scientifically verified. These laws are regarded today as the fundamental laws of modern physics.
One of Einstein’s predictions of the special relativity laws was that the light coming from distant stars, when passing the sun is slightly bent. This was shown to be true and it means that electromagnetic radiation or energy is affected by gravity. Einstein was able to work out his famous equation that showed the relationship of mass and energy:
Energy is equal to the mass of an object times the square of the speed of light. Einstein was able to show the link between matter and energy and thus with light and with electromagnetic radiation. This great insight of the nature of physical reality of Einstein led to the discovery of atomic and nuclear power which has shaped modern society.
In his general theory of relativity Einstein tried to apply his great insight of relativity to the universe. He noted that all objects were in constant relative motion to each other and since mass could be turned into energy, energy could also become mass. He also pointed out that the kinetic and gravitational mass are equivalent and that space and time are connected forming a space-time continuum. In his early model of the universe which he held to be static, he predicted a universal constant force known as the cosmological constant that opposed gravitation. Later he rejected this idea and he accepted the theory that the universe could possibly be expanding or contracting.
Einstein’s general theory of relativity gave raise to many new general relativity theories of the universe which are very popular today. The common element of these theories, known as the big bang theory, states that the universe began from a singularity that popped out of nothing by means of quantum or vacuum fluctuation. After its beginning the universe expanded to our present dimension and it is still expanding. In order to explain various scientific problems the theories varied. Some of these theories talk about an inflation soon after the beginning, or describe the universe in terms of a bubble or bubbles, string, strings or super string. They talk seriously about worm-holes, magnetic monopole wormhole, parallel and evolving universes, and of a free lunch universe.
A LOOK AT OUR BEAUTIFUL UNIVERSE.
INTRODUCTION.
The physical cosmos is so fascinating that it is an object of observation, study and speculation of many people. These includes scientists, philosophers, theologians, artists and a multitude of ordinary people with a great love for the universe. I am one of those who loves to examine all aspects of the cosmos. I am fascinated by its mystery and I have a particular cosmic vision which I would like to share with anyone who would be interested.
I have written a work which I called ‘COSMIC VISION’ and it dealt with a comprehensive and complementary understanding of the cosmos from three aspects: the physical, the rational and the transcendent. I like to call myself a cosmovisionist because to obtain a holistic understanding of the cosmos, one has to view it from these three different aspects. In this present work I would like to restrict myself, but not exclusively, on the physical aspect of the cosmos.
My view of the physical cosmos differs somewhat from the ordinary held views of cosmologists today. I do not want to dispute their theories but I would like to present my vision as clearly as I can, hoping that it has some merit.
I would like to dedicate my work to all cosmic beings because we all share in the most basic and fascinating element which is ‘to be’. We all have mutual rights and responsibilities to live and cooperate in peace, harmony and justice. I am very grateful to every person and creature that has made me to be who I am and I strive to grow in knowledge and love as far as it is possible. I would like to invite all to come to grow in the knowledge, wisdom and mutual love of our beautiful cosmos.
AUTHOR: HANS J. MEYER
TABLE OF CONTENT.
TITLE PAGE: PP. 1
INTRODUCTION: PP. 2
TABLE OF CONTENT: PP. 3
CHAPTER I. BASIC PRINCIPLES. PP. 4
1. ARISTOLE. PP. 4
2. ISAAC NEWTON. PP. 8
3. ALBERT EINSTEIN. PP. 1I
4. QUANTUM THEORY. PP. 14
CHAPTER II. THE MISSING MASS. PP. 16
CHAPTER III. THE FIFTH DIMENSION. PP. 21
CHAPTER IV. A GRAVITATIONAL-KINETIC FORCE. PP. 24
CHAPTER V. A BLACK-HOLE. PP. 31
CHAPTER VI. A THEORY OF EVERYTHING (TOE). PP. 37
CHAPTER VII. A BACK-HOLE UNIVERSE (B.H.U.) PP. 45
CHAPTER VIII. UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS. PP. 53
CHAPTER IX. COSMOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES. PP. 59
CHAPTER X. CONTINUOUS COSMIC EVOLUTION. PP. 71
CHAPTER I.
BASIC PRINCIPLES.
The universe is govern by fundamental physical principles, many of which have been discovered. It is important to know them in order to get a better understanding of the cosmos in which we live. The universe is so great and immense that it presence itself as a mystery to anyone who is trying to comprehend it. The task is to apply our intelligence, our collective memory, skills and knowledge to unravel these mysteries and so to contribute to a deeper appreciation and understanding of the cosmos. This becomes a universal challenge to all but particularly to those who have the skills, intelligence and opportunity. It is not restricted to the physical scientists but must also involve the philosophers, the theologians, the artists and every person who feels urged to contribute in any way possible.
1. ARISTOTLE.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) was one of the greatest philosopher of the ancient Greek world who had a tremendous influence in the development of the Western European culture and civilisation. He was the teacher of the young Alexander the Great who conquered a great part of Western Asia and thus spread Greek culture and Aristotelian thought over the ancient world. Aristotle was a profound meta physician who tried to investigate the causes of things. He was not a physical scientist in our present day understanding, but he did study nature and was able to come to some very important discoveries that has helped us in the understanding of the universe.
As a philosopher, Aristotle knew the principle of sufficient reason. He knew and accepted the principle that: nothing can come from nothing. In a rational world there must exist a sufficient reason for everything that exists, which would explain its existence. One of the greatest puzzle is "existence" itself. Why does anything exist at all? But because we know intuitively that we exist, we also know intuitively that existence must exist. We further know that we are only finite; our existence does not explain the cause of our existence. In other words, we did not make ourselves because we are finite. Using the principle of sufficient reason, we can conclude that infinite existence itself must exist, that gives existence to finite beings. This infinite existence was called by Aristotle as the first cause, the cause or reason of all that exists.
These may seem to be intuitive or obvious statements but they are very important and need to be remembered and respected especially when it comes to the understanding of the universe. The universe could not have just formed itself out of nothing, this would be irrational because the universe itself is only finite and not infinite. To Aristotle there existed a first and a sufficient cause of everything that exists. It is the first and sufficient cause of everything that alone can give a sufficient reason of existence. To Aristotle this first and sufficient cause and reason of everything was pure essence, beingness itself, that gives beingness to everything that exists. The first and sufficient cause of everything that exists is universally acknowledged by intelligent people in all civilisation. To understand and to accept the existence of a first cause requires sufficient knowledge, intelligence and intellectual honesty. The first cause is pure act and acts from eternity.
The notion of an eternal act is difficult to understand and is closely linked with the notion of time. The concept of time can be threefold. Normally, our common or logical understanding of time means the past, the present and the future. What happened before the present is in the past and what will happen after the present is the future. We are all familiar with this understanding of the notion of time. We all were born in the past, we live in the presence now and we all will die in the future. Logical time is measured by comparing the period of time of a repetitive action. A year for example, is the period of time that the earth requires to revolve once around the sun. This is the normal experience and understanding of logical time of all thinking people.
However, Albert Einstein open up to us another understanding of the notion of time. The physical or relative notion of time which is time dilation. Time in the physical world is relative; it depends on the speed of a moving object relative to another object. The faster the object moves relative to another object the slower is its time factor. If the speed of an object nears the speed of light, its time factor is slowed down. No massive object can move at the speed of light where its time factor would be zero. This is a very different understanding from our common perception of time but it is very important and relevant when it comes to understand the physical universe.
There is another understanding of time which could be called transcendent; it is beyond the understanding of our common experience. It is different from physical time as used by the scientists when measuring the movement of sub-atomic particles. This transcendent notion of time is eternal time where there is no past or future but only an eternal presence. It is this notion of time that is applied to the first cause, or to the pure essence of existence. The first cause of everything has no past or future but exists only in an eternal presence. It is pure act that gives existence to everything that exists in the past, presence and future. This is a difficult notion of time but it is reasonable. If the first cause of everything that exists, is pure act and acts in an eternal presence, it is reasonable to say that it acts from eternity to eternity. Its action is eternal.
When viewing the universe from our common sense experience of time, we are inclined to say that the universe must have had a beginning because we have no experience of eternal time. From the physical understanding of time it is possible to say that the universe began when time began. This happened when massive or when non zero rest mass objects were formed out of pure energy, and moved with a speed lesser than the speed of light. Pure energy, however, which moves at the speed of light exists in a dimension of its own which I like to call the fifth dimension. In this dimension physical time has stopped or is zero because pure energy or electromagnetic radiation moves at the speed of light.
From the transcendent notion of time, it is reasonable to say that the universe, caused by the first cause is eternal. This notion is reasonable and can give an explanation to the physical laws of conservation of energy which states that energy can not be created or destroyed; in other words, it must be eternal. Scientists also hold that the basic laws that govern the universe are immutable. If the first cause, is the cause or origin of all the energy in the universe and the evolutionary process that governs the universe, than the universe can be considered to be eternal. The great medieval theologian and philosopher Thomas Aquinas had no difficulty in accepting the concept of an eternal universe as long as it was accepted that the first cause is the origin and end of everything that exists.
Aristotle contributed to our scientific understanding of the universe in teaching that for every movement there must be a cause or a force. For an object that is at rest to acquire movement, there must exist a cause, a power or a force that makes it to move. This was a profound insight into the nature of the physical universe. Aristotle might not have been aware of the different forces in nature and the laws of movement which were discovered much later. He was, however, aware of the existence of at least some physical forces that gave movement to the heavenly bodies.
Aristotle’s vision of the universe was rather limited when compared to our present day understanding. The earth was regarded as the center of the universe and all the planets, stars, sun and moon moved in concentric spheres around the earth and they determined their different orbits. This vision of the universe was firmly established by the work of the great astronomer Claudius Ptolemies of Alexandria (100-178 AD). It was so deeply held and taught as gospel truth that it lasted for over a millennium. Eventually, as new knowledge, evidence and facts where discovered, this vision was challenged and could no longer be held valid.
2. ISAAC NEWTON.
In the sixteen century, scientists were developing a new model of the universe. This new idea or vision of the cosmos was strengthened when Nicholas Copernican’s book, On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies was published just before his death in 1543. The new cosmic vision placed the sun as the center of the universe and had all the planets including the earth, revolving around the sun. Galileo Galileo (1564-1642) born about twenty three years after Copernicus's’ death, was the first person to use a refracting telescope for observing the heavens. He made a systematic observation of the heavens, giving observational evidence for a Sun-centred solar system as was predicted by Copernicus (1473-1543).
At the time of Galileo, also lived the great astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) who realised that the universe could not be infinite but must be finite because the darkness of the night sky directly conflicts with the idea of an infinite universe filled with luminous stars. Kepler was able to discover by using the astronomical data gathered by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), the three laws of motion of the planets around the sun. These laws were important for the work of Newton to discover the law of gravity.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) was one of the greatest physicist and mathematician of his time. He was able to discover the universal law of gravity and the laws of motion than bear his name. He was able to see that the reason why the planets moved in an elliptical orbits is that gravity obeys an inverse square law. He published his book The Principia in 1687 which had a great influence in the scientific development for the next three hundred years.
Newton left two important contribution to science. One was the law of gravity which states that the force between two masses any where in the universe, is proportional to the product of the two masses divided by the square of the distant (s) between them:
where (G) is the gravitational constant and (s) is the distant between the two objects or masses (m1 and m2). The other great contribution of Newton were the three laws of motion.
1. Every object continuous in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted upon by a force.
2. An applied force changes the momentum (p)of an object:
This means that the force (F) is related to the mass of an object (m) and the acceleration (a):
3. Whenever a force is applied to an object, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The great contribution of Newton to an understanding of the universe is the idea of the conservation of both kinetic and gravitational energy and forces. After a force has been applied to an object it gains kinetic energy which remains conserved as momentum. The momentum of an object which has kinetic energy, is released when the movement of the object is stopped. This can be clearly seen when an asteroid hits a planet. The kinetic energy or the force of the impact of the asteroid can cause tremendous damage. It is therefore possible to conclude that a moving object which has kinetic energy, carries a potential kinetic force. Similarly, the potential gravitational energy carries the gravitational force which is released when an object falls due to the attraction of the force of gravity.
If Aristotle taught that there must be a cause, a power, or a force for an object at rest to move, or a moving object to gain more momentum, Newton showed that this force or power is conserved in the momentum of a moving object. This meant that a moving object or mass would remain in the state of constant motion unless it was acted upon by another force. The force is only needed for the acceleration or deceleration of an object. A moving object has momentum depending on the speed and mass of the object. It contains kinetic energy which can be change into other forms of energy like gravitational potential energy, but this change can only come by means of a force. There are two basic forces and energies gravitational and kinetic.
3. ALBERT EINSTEIN.
The next great revolution in the understanding of the universe came in the early twenty century. Since the time of Newton there had been tremendous scientific developments and discoveries. However, it was Albert Einstein (1879-1955) who was able to discover the laws of relativity which altered the very concept of the nature of the physical world. The idea had always been that time was always constant and that it was independent from the speed of an object. Einstein showed that time, length and the mass of an object depended on the speed of an object relative to another object. The faster an object moved, its time and length would decrease and its mass would increase. What was constant was the speed of light in a vacuum and no physical object could move as fast as the speed of light. He showed that every object was relative to one another depending on its speed. This meant that every object was in constant relative motion in regards to all other objects in the universe.
The principle that affects time according to Einstein’s special relativity theory, is know as time dilation. It states that the intervals of time are not absolute but are relative to the motion of the observers. This means that for a moving object its time element is affected depending on its velocity relative to an another object in the same frame of reference :
where is the time when the object is at rest, (v) is the velocity of the moving object, (c) is the velocity of light and (t) is the time of the moving object relative to the other object. This would mean that if an mass object could move with the speed of light, the relative time of the object would be zero. This idea to Einstein, would be impossible. This formula shows that no massive object can move at the speed of light.
According to the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction, which is another consequence of Einstein’s special relativity theory, the length of an object moving relative from another, seem to decrease according to the speed of the moving object:
where is the length when the object is at rest, (v) is the speed of the object, (c) is the speed of light and (l) is the relative length viewed by the other observer. This formula shows that if a massive object could move at the speed of light its length would become zero or invisible.
The third relativity law that affects a moving object is known as relativistic mass. This is the mass of a moving object as it is measured by someone who is in the same frame of reference as the moving object. The mass seems to increase as its speed is increased, relative to the observer. The formula is:
where is the rest mass of the moving object, (v) is its speed,(c) is the speed of light, and (m) is its relativistic mass. It can be deduced from this formula that no massive object that has a non zero rest mass, can move at the speed of light otherwise its mass would be infinite which is obviously impossible.
This important insight into the nature of physical reality meant that the Newtonian laws of motion where not absolutely correct. They would still be useful for objects that moved at relatively slow speeds compared with the speed of light and for this purpose they are still being applied. But Newtonian laws of motion would be insufficient when the speed of the object came near to the speed of light. Objects moving near the speed of light were govern by Einstein’s law of special relativity. These laws predicted certain phenomena in nature which can and have often been scientifically verified. These laws are regarded today as the fundamental laws of modern physics.
One of Einstein’s predictions of the special relativity laws was that the light coming from distant stars, when passing the sun is slightly bent. This was shown to be true and it means that electromagnetic radiation or energy is affected by gravity. Einstein was able to work out his famous equation that showed the relationship of mass and energy:
Energy is equal to the mass of an object times the square of the speed of light. Einstein was able to show the link between matter and energy and thus with light and with electromagnetic radiation. This great insight of the nature of physical reality of Einstein led to the discovery of atomic and nuclear power which has shaped modern society.
In his general theory of relativity Einstein tried to apply his great insight of relativity to the universe. He noted that all objects were in constant relative motion to each other and since mass could be turned into energy, energy could also become mass. He also pointed out that the kinetic and gravitational mass are equivalent and that space and time are connected forming a space-time continuum. In his early model of the universe which he held to be static, he predicted a universal constant force known as the cosmological constant that opposed gravitation. Later he rejected this idea and he accepted the theory that the universe could possibly be expanding or contracting.
Einstein’s general theory of relativity gave raise to many new general relativity theories of the universe which are very popular today. The common element of these theories, known as the big bang theory, states that the universe began from a singularity that popped out of nothing by means of quantum or vacuum fluctuation. After its beginning the universe expanded to our present dimension and it is still expanding. In order to explain various scientific problems the theories varied. Some of these theories talk about an inflation soon after the beginning, or describe the universe in terms of a bubble or bubbles, string, strings or super string. They talk seriously about worm-holes, magnetic monopole wormhole, parallel and evolving universes, and of a free lunch universe.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
