THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE.

PART 2 THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE.

CHAPTER I.

BASIC PRINCIPLES.

4. QUANTUM THEORY.

The scientist Max Planck (1858-1947) proposed, in 1900, that electromagnetic radiation or energy, can be emitted or absorbed only in definite units, which he called quanta. It was Einstein, however, who first proposed that electromagnetic radiation which included light, could be made up of individual particles known as photons. Scientists were able to work out the Planck’s constant which is a fundamental constant in nature that relates the energy of a photon to its frequency.
E = f h

where (f) is the frequency and (h) is the Planck constant. This formula relates the particle nature of a quantum entity to its wave nature. It was Einstein who was able to explain, in 1905, the photoelectric effect that showed that photons had momentum and could be described in terms of particle-like quanta.

E = p c

where (p) is the term for momentum and (c) is the speed of light in a vacuum. This means that light or photon consist of quanta particles that at the same time, have a wave nature and a particle nature. These insights were the key steps that led to the development of the quantum theory.

The physicist Richard Feynman(1918-1988) talked about the central mystery of quantum mechanics which is that quantum entities have both wave and particle properties. They seem to travel as waves but depart and arrive as particles. They seem to exist in a special frame of reference where the quantum particles enjoy instantaneous communication even when they are widely separated. Werner Heisenberg(1901-1976) discovered a property of quantum mechanics in 1920 that is known as the uncertainty principle. This principle states that there exists an intrinsic uncertainty in nature that prevents us knowing simultaneously the exact position and momentum of a quantum particle.

This principle has been applied to all objects in the universe and some have even tried to apply it to energy and time. Quantum uncertainty according to some theorists, allows the temporary creation of electron-positron pairs and other particle and anti-particle pairs to appear out of nothing eg. out of a vacuum. Stephen Hawking (1942- ) talks about black-holes radiating or giving out energies that is known as the Hawking radiation. Some theorists seem to say that due to this quantum uncertainty which allows the temporary creation of bubbles out of nothing, could be the origin of the universe. They talk about a monopole universe or a universe that exists inside a single magnetic monopole that was produced by inflation after the temporary creation of a bubble. All these theories describe what is known as a "free lunch universe" because they all hold that the universe came out of nothing due to a quantum or vacuum fluctuation.

CHAPTER II.

THE MISSING MASS.

The basis of all the theories of a so called "free lunch universe", is the acceptance of the idea of a quantum or a vacuum fluctuation. This fluctuation which theoretically allows the creation of matter and anti matter out of nothing, is based on the uncertainty principle found in quantum mechanics. However, such a theory seems to violate the laws of logic and a very important law of physics, the law of conservation of energy and momentum.

If the energy of the universe came into existence due to an uncertainty than the whole universe could be considered to be basically irrational. It would have come into existence just by chance. If in fact energy could just pop into existence out of nothing it certainly violates Einstein’s basic law of conservation of energy and momentum which states that energy and momentum cannot be created or destroyed. This problem, however, does not arise if it is postulated that pure energy exists before the formation of matter and anti matter particles by means of quantum fluctuation. The formation of matter and anti matter is basically not from nothing but from pure energy existing in a state of chaos at the beginning of time.

Let us leave aside for the moment the various cosmological theories which are ingenious and which certainly do try to solve scientific problems that confront the big bang cosmologists. It might be helpful to try to interpret some of the basic scientific laws and discoveries in a way that do not violate either reason or the fundamental laws of modern physics. This could give an alternate view of the physical universe and answer some of the remaining cosmological mysteries.

One of the remaining cosmological problem is the mystery of the 90 percent of the missing mass of the universe. Scientists have known since the 1930 that all the matter observed in our galaxy, is insufficient to account for the movements of its stars. By 1980 it was calculated that there possibly exists about ten times more missing matter than the matter observed in the galaxies themselves. This assumption was made to explain the fact that stars and indeed the galaxies themselves, are held in place by several times more material than can be observed to exist in the galaxies. Only recently, scientists have also observed an unexplained extra tug of gravity that is slowing the outward bound movement of the two satellites Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11. This mysterious effect has also been observed in other satellites like the Ulysses probe, and the Galileo satellite that is orbiting among Jupiter’s moons.

This missing mass is referred to by scientists as dark matter but they are uncertain what it consists off. There are various theories and speculations. Some would say that there are many brown dwarfs, huge sun like masses but not big enough to start nuclear fusion to become stars. Others would speculate the existence of huge black holes in the centre of galaxies. These objects are called by scientists by the acronym ‘MACH Os", standing for ‘massive astronomical compact halo objects’. Other theories talk about ‘WIMPS’ or ‘weakly interacting massive particles’ particles that consist of matter but only interact weakly with ordinary Byronic matter. According to the big bang theory there are two kinds, the CDM or Cold Dark Matter which are particles that have come from the big bang but travel very much slower than the speed of light. The other kind is the HDM or Hot Dark Matter, particles that travel with speeds that are close to that of light. Non of these CDM and HDM WIMPs particles have ever been directly detected also a possible candidate would be one of the neutrino particles.

A possible answer to this problem of the missing mass or dark matter may be found by reexamining both Einstein’s relativity theory and the quantum theory. Max Planck showed that energy comes in entities that are known as quanta particles. Each quantum particle has a specific quantity of energy that can be measured. Albert Einstein showed that matter or mass can be changed into energy and energy into mass and that mass and energy obey the law of conservation, eg. it cannot be created or destroyed. The Quantum theory says that energy, which is electromagnetic radiation has two distinct features; it moves like a wave and acts like a particle. Werner Heisenberg discovered the uncertainty principle; the fact that both of these features are so linked that they cannot both be precisely determined at the same time. Einstein also proved that light, photons or electromagnetic radiations are affected by gravity and have momentum by the photoelectric effect. Einstein’s general theory of relativity holds that the gravitational mass and inertial mass is equivalent.
If photons or quanta particles are affected by gravity and have momentum they posses the qualities of mass. However, since the quanta particles move at the speed of light, the particles have no measurable length due to the Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction. Quanta energy is finite and it is conserved; in other words, it cannot increase in mass and energy, and it cannot loose any mass or energy. These facts make the quantum particle a very unique entity. It moves at the speed of light, its mass and energy is conserved, its length cannot be measured and it has both gravitational and inertial properties. It is like mass but a very special mass that does not act like ordinary relativity mass. Ordinary relativity mass can increase and decrease its mass and energy and it is affected by its speed which can not be as great as the speed of light. I like to call this special zero rest mass or non-relativity mass, virtual mass, because it has the qualities of gravity and inertia but it is not affected by relativity.

This means that the quantum particle acts and behaves like other massive objects both by gravity and by inertia. Quanta particles can act upon each other by gravitationally attracting each other. However, it cannot increase the quanta’s speed but it can bend the direction of the particles’ movement. The quanta’s effect on other zero-rest mass particles it both increases the gravitational and inertial factors.

The energy (E) of quanta particles are well known and can be measured according to the formula:

E = f h

where (f) is its frequency and (h) is Planck’s constant.

By using Einstein’s mass energy equation:

E = m c^2

it is possible to work out the virtual mass of quanta particles:

m^0 = (f h) / c^2

where (m^0) is the virtual mass.

The mass of the quantum particle is called ‘virtual mass’ in order to distinguish it from ordinary or relativistic mass. Ordinary or relativistic mass is the mass of those particles that have zero rest masses. These mass particles have masses when they are at rest and do not move. The zero rest mass quantum particle cannot be at rest but is constantly moving at the speed of light. Relativistic mass or an ordinary mass particle can increase or decrease its speed and as its speeds increases, its mass will also increase. But the mass particle can never reach the speed of light because its mass would become infinite. The virtual mass has no rest mass and cannot increase its speed. It moves constantly at the speed of light, it cannot decrease or increase its speed, virtual mass, momentum or energy.

If quanta particles do posses virtual mass it would explain many mysteries in the universe. It could explain the movements of the stars in our galaxy, the mysterious movement of galaxies in the universe or even the mysterious gravitational tug of the solar system on the various satellites. It would explain why photons have momentum, why they are attracted by gravity and it would explain why an object that increases its speed also increases its mass and momentum. These phenomena are scientifically verifiable and are according to Einstein’s special relativity theory.

The virtual mass of the quanta particles could possibly also give an explanation to the Heiselberg uncertainty principle. Since the quanta particles move at the speed of light, their length can not be observed and measured because of the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction. If their length can not be measured it is impossible to determined their position in space because they do not rest but are constantly on the move. As soon as one tries to place its position it has already moved. If their position cannot be determined, their momentum can also not be determined at the same time. However, both its virtual mass and its momentum can be measured separately as in the case of virtual photons of quantum mechanics. The virtual particles are responsible for a gravitational and kinetic force, they carry energy and can be converted into real mass.

Stephen Hawking speculated about black holes radiating energy, known as the Hawking radiation, which he said was due to the quantum uncertainty that allows for quantum fluctuation. Scientists like to speculate that the creation of the universe was due to quantum fluctuation where pairs of sub-atomic particles (matter and anti-matter) popped into existence out of nothing. If energy, quanta particles or electric-magnetic radiation, however, consists of virtual mass which cannot be observed, it is more likely that quantum fluctuation is not a creation out of nothing but rather the formation of real mass or matter out of virtual mass. Due to the quantum uncertainty, this process could occur anytime anywhere but it is more likely to happen where the temperature and pressure are very high. This situation would be near the event horizon of a black hole as Stephen Hawking has speculated.

It is of great interest that experiments conducted at the Super-Kamiokande neutrino detector, have indicated that neutrinos have mass. Neutrinos come in three types: tau, muon and electron and each has its antimatter counterpart. In the experiments muon neutrinos were observed to change into tau neutrinos which could only be possible if the particles had some kind of mass.

While these experiments could possibly help in answering the question of the missing mass in the universe, scientists do not believe that they give a full explanation to the mystery. However, if it is possible to prove scientifically that neutrinos do have mass, than it might also be possible to prove the existence of virtual mass. If electric-magnetic radiation has virtual mass that affects both gravitation and momentum, it could explain the mystery of the missing mass in the universe.