THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE PART 9

THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE PART IX.

CHAPTER IX.

COSMOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES.

The five most important universal or fundamental constants of the universe are: the gravitational constant, the speed of light in a vacuum, the Planck constant, the frequency and the radius of the event horizon of the universe. They constitute a fundamental formula for the universe:

R = (2 G f h ) / c^4

The three constants, the gravitational constant, the speed of light in a vacuum and the Planck constant, are generally accepted to be universal constants by the scientific community. It is also a general accepted physical principle that energy cannot be created or destroyed. If these are truly universal principles than the frequency of the universe must also be a universal constant because according to Einstein, energy is equal to the frequency times the Planck constant, that is:

E = f h

If the energy of the whole universe is constant, than its frequency must also be constant. If, however, all the universe is a vast black-hole according to the above universal formula, than its radius must also be constant and the universe must be static.

Unfortunately, the majority of modern scientists do not hold that the universe is static but rather believe that it is expanding. This, they say, is so because of Einstein’s general relativity theory. Another reason is the red shift discovered in the light coming from distance galaxies, which they say, is due to the Doppler effect. An important proof they hold is the back ground radiation discovered throughout the universe, which is said to be the remnant evidence of the big bang. If is true that the universe is actually expanding today, then either the universe is not a black hole or the five fundamental constants, as mentioned above, are not constant.

The modern theory of the universe, the big bang universe theory is based on Einstein’s general theory of relativity. For historical reasons Einstein’s general theory of relativity did not at first, take into account the quantum theory but rather just incorporated the force of gravity in the universe and did not account for the inertial force. Einstein seems to have intuitively sensed the necessity of an opposite force in the universe which he incorporated into his first universal equation and which is known as the cosmological constant.

When the astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) discovered that the redshift of light coming from distance galaxies is dependent on the distance of the galaxies, scientists interpreted it to be due to the Doppler effect and they accepted it as proof that the universe was expanding. If the universe was expanding than there was no need of Einstein’s cosmological constant and it was no longer considered in the general relativity formula of the universe. Even Einstein eventually accepted that the universe was expanding and regarded his cosmological constant as his greatest blunder of his life.

Although Einstein could be regarded as one of the founding father of the quantum theory, he never completely accepted it and did not incorporated it into his general theory of the universe. He could not fully accept the theory especially when Werner Heisenberg (1901-76) discovered the uncertainty principle. This principle stated that in nature the position and momentum of a particle can not be know with an unlimited accuracy at the same time. This brought an element of chance or uncertainty as a fundamental condition of nature in the universe which Einstein found difficult to accept. This lack of accepting this fundamental condition of the universe into the general theory of relativity, was at first a hindrance to the development of a universal theory of the universe. But later on, scientists did incorporate the quantum theory into Einstein’s general relativity theory which developed into the modern big bang theory .

Einstein unsuccessfully searched for nearly thirty years to get a complete formula for the universe that would account for all four fundamental forces in nature. He was attracted by the idea of a fifth dimension but he did not view it in the context of the whole universe. He viewed it rather according to the big bang theory as a universe curled up within itself with a radius of a Planck length at its very beginning. Einstein was greatly influenced by the tremendous development and discoveries of modern astronomy and cosmology which occurred at the beginning of this twenties century. In so doing he restricted to some extend, his own independent creative thought. When he accepted the idea of the expansion of the universe theory, he had to discarded the idea of the cosmological constant. However, Einstein’s brilliant ideas of the laws of special and general relativity and his insight of the quantum theory, they contain the basic elements of a true understanding of the physical universe.

According to the black hole universe theory (B.H.U.), the universe is static and cannot expand or contract. However, most modern cosmologists and astronomers have accepted the big bang theory of the universe which holds that the universe is in fact expanding. The reason for this favoured view of the scientists is based on their firmly held cosmological theories and astronomical observations. Theoretically or rather mathematically, Einstein’s general relativity formula of the universe without the cosmological constant, gives the formula for the big bang theory. According to this theory the universe is able to expand or to contract.

The questions to ask is: is the formula a true reflection of the universe or is it such a beautiful mathematical formula which has captured the imagination of scientists but it does not fully express the true nature of the universe?

In ancient Greece, there existed a religious philosophical school called Pythagoreans named after the famous philosopher Pathagoras (about 580-500 BC). This group had such respect for mathematics that they developed a kind of mystical philosophy of numbers to understand the cosmos. However, their group eventually died out because numbers or mathematics alone cannot truly reflect reality. Numbers and mathematics is an abstraction and is quite distinct from physical reality. Thus any mathematical formula of the universe even how beautiful it might appear, cannot be taken as true unless it can be verified by physical proof and observations.

The idea of the big bang theory that all the energy of the universe was contained at the beginning of time, in a space time dimension of a Planck length which is only is hard to believe. Similarly, it is difficult to accept that all the energy of the universe exploded from nothing. This seem to violate the philosophical principle that nothing can come from nothing. It also violates the physical principle that energy cannot be created or destroyed. These ideas are beautiful mathematical theories but they are so difficult to understand that many young people are put off from seriously trying to understand physics and cosmology. Even the idea of a space time continuum or the idea that gravity bends space are difficult concepts to grasp. All these ideas flow from the big bang theory and seem to be more mathematical concepts distinct from physical reality.

The question of the expansion of the universe is very important to properly understand the reality of the physical universe. As it was mentioned before, it was the astronomer Edwin Powell Hubble (1889-1953) who discovered that the redshift of light coming from far away galaxies depends on their distances from the observer. The greater the distance the greater the redshift. From his discovery the big bang cosmologists worked out the Hubble constant which gives the rate at which the universe is suppose to be expanding. Hubble was uncertain to the reason of the fact that the redshift of galaxies was depending on the distance. Since, however, the big bang theory was so popular among scientists, he also accepted the idea that the universe must be expanding. The big bang cosmologists were delighted and claimed to have physical proof of the expansion of the universe.

Ever since the time of Hubble this is the preferred interpretation of the cause of the redshift which is presumed to be due to a Doppler effect. However, this view was not universal held by all scientists. There has been a hypothesis of the ‘tired light’ first suggested by the Swiss-American astronomer Fritz Zwicky (1898-1974). The concept put forward is that the light travelling through the universe loses energy creating a redshift in relation to the distance it has travelled, but which is not due to the expansion of the universe. However, a reason for this loss of energy of the travelling light was not proposed and consequently the hypothesis was dropped.

The tired light hypothesis of Fritz Zwicky, however, could possibly be correct according to the black hole universe (B.H.U.) theory. The B.H.U. theory could give a reason how the energy of the light travelling through the universe could be lost and so create a redshift. It was Albert Einstein again who suggested in his general theory of relativity, that light travelling against a gravitational force will exhibit a gravitational red shift. A rest mass object travelling against the force of gravity would loose speed but light cannot slow down because its speed is constant. Consequently, light travelling against a gravitational force would loose energy and exhibit a gravitational red shift.

According to the B.H.U. theory, the universe has a universal gravitational constant which acts throughout the universe. Light therefore, or electromagnetic radiation travelling in the universe, is travelling against this gravitational force and thus would lose energy exhibiting a gravitational red shift. If the gravitational force is constant then the loss of energy from the light travelling is constant. The further or the longer the light travels through the universe, the greater would be the loss of energy and consequently the greater would be its redshift. Thus the red shift exhibited by the light coming from distant galaxies, could be interpreted as being a gravitational redshift rather than a red shift due to the Doppler effect. In other words, the universe may not be expanding but rather it could be static as predicted by the B.H.U. (black hole universe) theory.

Another very important proof for the big bang theory according to the cosmologists is the fact of the universal microwave back ground radiation which was discovered. According to the big bang theory the initial state of the universe consisted of a very high temperature which decreased as the universe expanded. The residue of this early high radiation should still be observable in today’s universe. Thus, when a universal back ground radiation was discovered by two Bell Research technicians Arno Allan Penzias (1933- ) and Robert Wilson (1936-) in 1965, the scientists were delighted. Most cosmologists today assume that it is a definite proof for the big bang theory.

However, the B.H.U. (black hole universe) theory predicts that the universe must also have a universal back ground radiation due to the universal temperature of the universe. Every black hole has an internal temperature depending on its volume which is dependent on its radius which in turn is dependent on its quantity of mass or energy. Scientists speculate that only about one to ten percent of the mass in the universe is visible. This could mean that ninety nine to ninety percent of the mass of the universe is in the form of electromagnetic radiation or pure energy. It is this radiation that constitute the universal back ground radiation of the universe. Thus the universal back ground radiation found throughout the universe might not necessarily be a proof for the big bang theory but rather could turn out to be a proof for the B.H.U. theory.

The universal back ground radiation may even become the decisive factor in determining which of the two theories is correct. According to the big bang theory the universe is still expanding which means that the original temperature of the big bang must still be decreasing. This decrease in the temperature should be detectable in the universal back ground radiation. If it is still decreasing than it could possibly be an indication that the big bang theory is correct.

However, if it back ground radiation remains stable, it could be proof for the B.H.U. theory because according to its theory the universe cannot loose any energy. Energy could be changed into rest mass particles like the sub atomic particles by means of quantum fluctuation. This would cool the universe because rest mass particles are like bottle up energy balls but energy is released again by the thermo -nuclear reaction that occur in the interior of stars. These two processes would eventually balanced each other and the temperature of the universe should remain stable. This stable temperature should be generally throughout, apart from some slight local differences due to variation of quantities of rest mass objects and radiation found in galaxies.

COBE was a satellite launched by NASA in 1989 to discover ripples in the cosmic background radiation. The satellite confirmed the universal background radiation of 2.7 Kelvin coming from all parts of the universe but it also discovered tiny variations in the temperature coming from different parts of the sky. The differences were no bigger than one part in a hundred thousand and the big bang cosmologists took it as proof to confirm the inflationary theory of the Big Bang model of the universe. It seem to confirm that the early structure of the universe were just right to explain the formation of all the clusters of galaxies observed in the universe today.

The findings of the satellite COBE could also be explained by the B.H.U. theory. The average temperature of the background radiation is the average temperature of the black hole universe. However, the slight differences or ripples in the back ground radiation indicate the different concentration of matter and energies in the universe. The universe consists of clusters and even super clusters of galaxies where as other parts are less dense or less concentrated with matter and energies. The variations of the concentration of matter and energies are observed in the ripples indicated by the COBE findings.

The big bang cosmologists apply the Doppler effect to explain the redshift of the light coming from the distant galaxies and take it as proof that the universe is expanding. The Doppler effect is a proven scientific principle and it seem to operate throughout the universe. There is a Doppler redshift of the light coming from a galaxy that is receding from an observer and there is a Doppler blue shift of the light coming from a galaxy which is moving towards the observer. The light coming from distant galaxies show a redshift and this is the reason why cosmologist thing that the universe is expanding. But there are some galaxies in our local cluster like the Andromeda galaxies which exhibit a blue shift which indicates that it is moving towards our galaxy instead of drawing further apart. The big bang cosmologists explain this phenomena by stating that the expansion of the universe does not affect the local cosmological structures but only the super or large structures of the universe.

According to the B.H.U. theory, the universe is not expanding and the redshift of the light coming from distant galaxies is interpreted gravitationally rather than as a Doppler red shift. Furthermore, the B.H.U. theory holds that the universe as a whole is static and not in motion. If the universe as a whole is static but the earth is in motion in regards to the universe, than the scientists should be able to observe a Doppler redshift of light that would indicate the earth’s motion in regards to the universe as a whole. However, when it comes to measure the earth’s motion relative to the universe as a whole, it would be difficult to distinguish the Doppler redshift effect from the gravitational redshift.

A further difficulty would be to account for the relative movement of all the other structures of the universe in regards to which the earth would also have a relative motion. For instant, the earth moves within our own solar system which moves relatively to the Milky Way galaxy. Our Milky Way galaxy in turn moves relatively and is part of a local cluster of galaxies. This local cluster of galaxies moves and is part of a super cluster of galaxies and this in turn moves and is part of the whole universe. There is constant relative movements which affect the Doppler redshift of the light coming from these different structures of the universe. It is very difficult to distinguish each relative motion of the earth from each other.

If the B.H.U. theory is correct than it might be possible to work out the radius of its event horizon from its universal background radiation or temperature. Every black hole has an internal temperature which is directly related to its energy and radius. Since a black hole does not loose energy and since energy can be measured in electromagnetic radiations than it should be possible to work out its temperature relative to its radius.

Scientists would hold that only about one to ten percent of the mass of the universe can be observed. This would mean that only one to ten percent of the energy of the universe is in the form of matter that contains bottle up energy within itself. The rest of the energy or the ninety nine to ninety percent of the energy of the universe is still in the form of electromagnetic radiation. This free energy would make up the temperature of the universe or the 2.7 Kelvin of the background radiation observed every where in the universe. The percentage of energy in the form of matter in the universe must be taken into account when working out the radius of the universe from its temperature.

The B.H.U. theory answers a number of problems encountered by the big bang universe theory. The big bang universe theory finds it difficult to unite various mathematical mechanics like the Newtonian, Einstein relativity and the quantum. From the basic B.H.U. mathematical formula which is:

R = ( G f h ) / c^4

it is possible to observe the close interconnection between the various mechanics. Gravity is represented by the symbol (G); Einstein’s relativity is symbolised by (c), standing for the speed of light in a vacuum; and (h), the Planck constant includes the quantum theory. Furthermore, the formula includes all the energy and masses of the universe and it can reveal the frequency of the universe which has been a mystery up to now. The formula also calculates the radius of the universe and shows that the universe is static or stable; it can not go on expanding for ever or contract into a singularity.

The B.H.U. theory gives a reasonable explanation to some of the other cosmological difficulties known as the horizon, the flatness and lambda problems. The lambda problem arises by the fact that cosmologists have detected a counter force to gravity in the universe but it is so weak that it cannot be measured. The big bang universe theorists propose a period of very fast inflation of the universe just after its beginning of its expansion. However, this theory of the exponential inflation is an arbitrary assumption and it would violate Einstein’s law of relativity which holds that nothing can move faster than the speed of light.

In the B.H.U. theory the lambda problem does not arise because it is a fundamental part of the theory. The lambda force is part of the most fundamental force in nature, the gravitational kinetic force. The lambda force would be equal but opposite to the force of gravity in the universe. Both forces are necessary to make the universe stable and permanent.

The flatness problem arises in the big bang theory in determining whether the universe will be expanding for ever, or whether the expansion will slow down and stop, or if the universe will begin to contract again. If there is not enough matter in the universe to stop its expansion the universe will continue to expand for ever. If the gravitational matter is enough than the expansion should slow down, stop and the universe will begin to contract again. The problem with the flatness is that the scientists cannot determine which is correct: is the universe’s expansion slowing down; is there enough matter in the universe for the expansion to stop and to begin to contract again or not?

From present astronomical observation the energy density of the universe seems to remain at a critical divide rendering the universe a flat, Euclidean space. This flatness problem does not arise in the B.H.U. theory because according to its view the universe is not contracting nor expanding; but it is static and stable. It has a limited extend which is measured by the radius of its event horizon.

The so called horizon problem, arises from the fact that the universe is so similar throughout; having the same properties of energy density and back ground temperature and the laws of relativity seem to be operating instantaneously. According to Einstein’s relativity laws nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. How is it possible than, that the universe can be so isotropic throughout seeing that the universe is so vast and it would take billions of light years for light to transverse it? The big bang universe theory is trying to answer this question with its inflationary theory. Before the inflation, the universe was still very small in size, so that its energy density and temperature could be evenly distributed. Then, by means of the inflation, this evenness was spread throughout the present day universe and that is way it looks so uniform today.

This problem of the horizon or the fact that the universe is so isotropic throughout in spite of its vastness, is answered quite differently by the B.H.U. theory. When viewing the universe from the fourth or the space time continuum dimension, the quanta particles or the photons travel at the speed of light. This would mean that according to the Einstein’s relativity laws, its time of travel anywhere within the universe is zero. This would mean that the photon travel in a no time zone and their effects seem to appear simultaneously.

This isotropic nature of the universe would indicate that the universe forms one whole body where every element is interconnected and affected by each other particle and part of the universe. The B.H.U. theory gives meaning to this by holding that the whole universe forms a fifth dimensional structure, an unique independent system of energy which can neither loose or gain energy from the outside. Looking at this unique system from the fourth, spacetime continuum dimension, events on the quanta level seems to be simultaneous. However, when the movements of the quanta particles are examined in the fifth dimension than the time factor is normal.

One of the cosmological consequences of the B.H.U. theory is its unique interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics which is one of the fundamental laws of science. The second law of thermodynamics was first enunciated in 1850 by Rudolf Clausius (1822-88) and in essence it states that heat cannot flow by itself from a system of lower temperature to a system of higher temperature. Clausius also introduced the idea of entropy which is a measure of disorder or chaos in a close system of energy. Thus, in any close system of energy in which the second law of thermodynamics operates, its entropy should always increase. This would mean that in the universe which is a close system of energy, its entropy is continuously increasing and the universe is destined to expire of ’a heat death’ as was predicted by Clausius.

When examining the universe from the fourth or spacetime continuum dimension, this second law of thermodynamics seems to be true especially because of the continuous thermonuclear burning of matter in stars. Furthermore, according to the big bang theory the universe is still expanding and there is no mechanism in its theory where by pure electromagnetic energy can be reconstituted into matter. The formation of matter according to its theory, occurred only at its very beginning. This would mean that the universe is destined for total entropy where only chaos has mastery.

The B.H.U. theory would hold that in its fourth or spacetime continuum dimension, the universe does seem to be heading for a heat death or total entropy or chaos. However, the theory also views the universe in a fifth dimension which does have a permanent mechanism of converting pure energy into matter or sub atomic particles. The mechanism is quantum fluctuation and is a permanent feature of the universe. In its fifth dimension the universe can continuously remodel itself.

While chaos or entropy is part or even the greater part of the universe, it cannot have complete mastery. There seems to be a fine balance between chaos and quantum fluctuation. The astronomers can only detect one to ten per cent of the mass of the universe. The rest of the mass of the universe seems to remain in the form of electromagnetic radiation and this maintains its heat observed by its universal back ground radiation.

The mechanism that transforms the electromagnetic radiation when it is in the form of chaos or nonlinear structure, into sub-atomic particles or linear structure is quantum fluctuation. This is possible because of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle that was found to be operating throughout the universe. This principle was discovered by Werner Heisenberg (1901-76) and states simply that it is impossible to accurately predict the position and momentum of a particle at the same time.

This principle can be explained by Einstein’ relativity theory. Since photons or electromagnetic radiations consist of quanta particles which cannot loose kinetic and gravitational energies, they move continuously at the speed of light. Thus they have no dimension of length and they operate in a time frame where its time is zero when viewed from the fourth or space time continuum dimension. The length and thus their position cannot be measured nor their mass and momentum since they only have zero rest mass. They exist in the fifth dimension where they acquire their own time, particle structure and momentum.

The fifth dimension is the realm of the quantum fluctuation and when viewed from the fourth or space time continuum dimension it looks very strange or even weird. This strangeness has been called quantum weirdness and it seems to indicate ‘that nature is in some sense nonlocal’. When scientists refer to nature to be ‘local’ they mean that mechanical interactions of particles or systems of particles are conditioned by the laws of relativity and cannot occur faster than the speed of light. This would mean that there could not be a simultaneous interaction between particles that are far apart.

Such recognition of nonlocal interactions was repugnant to Einstein and that was why he was reluctant to accept the quantum theory. But it is the quantum theory viewed in the fifth dimension that explains the weirdness or nonlocal interactions observed in nature. It is the quantum theory that gives meaning to quantum fluctuation which is the mechanism that is operating in the universe. It is by means of quantum fluctuation that pure electromagnetic radiation or quanta energy is transformed from the state of chaos to rest mass matter or sub atomic particles which are the building particles of matter in the universe.

The hotter the environment, the greater the chance for quantum fluctuation to occur. According to Stephen Hawking this occurs near the event horizon of a black hole where its heat density seems to be the greatest. However, due to the principle of Heisenberg uncertainty, quantum fluctuation could also happen in cooler environment but the chances are much smaller.

This idea that matter is formed continuously throughout the universe was first proposed by the steady state hypothesis which was an alternate theory of the universe to the big bang theory. The steady state hypothesis was first proposed in 1940 by Herman Bondi (1919- ), Tommy Gold (1920- ), and Fred Hoyle (1915- ). Its main idea was that matter was formed through out the universe in the form of new hydrogen atoms. The steady state theory also accepted the idea of the expansion of the universe. It could not, however, account for the redshift observed in the light coming from distant galaxies and could not explain the evolution that marks the history of the universe.

The continuous creation of the steady state theory proposed that matter was continuously formed to compensate for the expansion of the universe and thus it kept the universe "isotropic". The theory did not, however, explain what caused this continuous formation of matter and what was its mechanism. The B.H.U. theory does not hold for the expansion of the universe, but it does give the cause of its formation. The rest mass matter is formed by the mechanism of quantum fluctuation where by pure energy or electromagnetic radiation is formed into rest mass sub-atomic particles.